The present study aimed to elucidate the relationship between cola consumption and bone mineral density (BMD) in Korean adolescents and young adults. We used data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2008–2011. A total of 2499 adolescents and young adults aged 12–25 years were included. The study participants were classified as cola drinkers and non-cola drinkers according to 24-h dietary recall data. BMD was measured using dual X-ray absorptiometry. In the male population, whole body, whole femur and femoral neck BMD in cola drinkers were lower than that of non-cola drinkers by 4% (95% CI −0⋅071, −0⋅007), 5% (−0⋅092, −0⋅012) and 5% (−0⋅090, −0⋅001), respectively. In both sex groups, cola drinkers had less frequent milk consumption than non-cola drinkers. However, there were no significant differences in cola consumption according to calcium intake in both sexes. In conclusion, cola intake and BMD were inversely associated with Korean male adolescents and young adults. Considering the importance of peak bone mass attainment at adolescents and the increasing trend in carbonated beverage consumption in South Korea, further studies are needed to elucidate the causality between cola intake and lower BMD.

Caffeinated beverages are the most consumed substances in the world. High rate of uptake of these beverages leads to various cardiovascular disorders ranging from palpitations to coronary failure. The objective of the study is to ascertain how the complexity parameters of heart rate variability are affected by acute consumption of caffeinated beverages in young adults.

Electrocardiogram measurements were performed before consuming drinks. After consuming the drinks, measurements were done again at 30 minutes and 60 minutes. Heart rate variability signals were acquired from electrocardiogram signals. Also, the signals were reconstructed in the phase space and largest Lyapunov exponent, correlation dimension, approximate entropy, and detrended fluctuation analysis values were calculated.

Heart rate increased for energy drink and cola groups but not in coffee group. Non-linear parameter values of energy drink, coffee, and cola group are increased within 60 minutes after drink consumption. This change is statistically significant just for energy drink group.

Energy drink consumption increases the complexity of the cardiovascular system in young adults significantly. Coffee and cola consumption have no significant effect on the non-linear parameters of heart rate variability.

Although it is often assumed that public workers have greater benefit protections than their private sector counterparts covered by the Employees Retirement Income Security Act of 1974, this paper finds that state and local governments – particularly those with generous cost-of-living adjustments (COLAs), fewer benefit protections, and financial pressures on the plan and the sponsoring government – cut COLAs for current workers and, often, for retirees. In most instances, these cuts were upheld by the courts. While the pace of COLA cuts has slowed, they are likely to reappear if plans come under renewed financial pressures.

In the Western world, a trend towards increased consumption of carbonated soft drinks combined with a decreasing intake of milk is observed. This may affect circulating insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) and fasting insulin, as seen in pre-pubertal children. The present study was designed to reflect the trend of replacing milk with carbonated beverages in young men and to study the effects of this replacement on IGF-I, IGF-binding protein 3 (IGFBP-3), IGF-I:IGFBP-3 and glucose–insulin metabolism. A randomised, controlled crossover intervention study, in which eleven men aged 22–29 years were given a low-Ca diet in two 10 d periods with 10 d washout in between. In one period, they drank 2·5 litres of Coca Cola® per day and the other period 2·5 litres of semi-skimmed milk. Serum IGF-I, IGFBP-3 (RIA), insulin (fluoro immunoassay) and glucose (Cobas) were determined at baseline and end point of each intervention period. Insulin resistance and β-cell function were calculated with the homeostasis model assessment. A decrease in serum IGF-I was observed in the cola period compared with the milk period (P < 0·05). No effects of treatment were observed on IGFBP-3, IGF-I:IGFBP-3, insulin, glucose, insulin resistance or β-cell function. The present study demonstrates that high intake of cola over a 10 d period decreases total IGF-I compared with a high intake of milk, with no effect on glucose–insulin metabolism in adult men. It is unknown whether this is a transient phenomenon or whether it has long-term consequences.

The frails of Cola lizae, an endemic tree with a limited geographical distribution, have been a major food source for lowland gorillas in the Lopé Reserve during part of each year over a six-year period. Faecal analysis indicated that 11,000-18,000 Cola seeds km-2 were deposited by gorillas during the 4-month season in 1989. Gorillas are the only important dispersers of this species: other primates consume the succulent mesocarp, but do not swallow the large seed; elephants do not eat Cola fruits. Observations of Cola seeds in gorilla faeces showed a very high germination rate and, despite initial high mortality, 18% of seedlings still survived six months after deposition. Survival of seedlings was significantly better in faeces left at nest-sites than in other areas of the forest: 40% of seedlings were viable at nest-sites six months after deposition. This suggests that the open areas of forest, preferred by gorillas as nest-sites, are advantageous to the propagation of this species.