Cognitive load theory is an instructional theory based on our knowledge of evolutionary psychology and human cognitive architecture. It can be used to provide instructional guidelines for the acquisition of all aspects of a second language by adults and some aspects, primarily reading and writing, of a first language by both children and adults. The theory assumes that knowledge can be divided into biologically primary knowledge that we have evolved to learn easily without conscious effort and biologically secondary knowledge that we have not specifically evolved to learn but can acquire with explicit instruction and conscious effort. Learning to listen to and speak a first language are biologically primary with all other aspects of language learning being biologically secondary. A general cognitive architecture governs the acquisition of biologically secondary knowledge. That architecture includes a working memory that is limited in capacity and duration when dealing with novel information but with no known limits when dealing with familiar information transferred from long-term memory. This architecture governs how we learn and accordingly, also determines the effectiveness of instructional designs.

When dealing with instructional information, working memory can be divided into auditory and visual processors. The capacity limits of each processor are a major impediment when students are required to learn new material. Nevertheless, there is one strategy that can effectively expand working memory capacity by using the partially independent status of the auditory and visual processors. Under specific and well-defined conditions, presenting some information in visual mode and other information in auditory mode can increase effective working memory capacity and so reduce the effects of cognitive overload. This effect is called the instructional modality effect or modality principle. It is an instructional principle that can substantially increase learning. This chapter discusses the theory and data that underpin the principle and the instructional implications that flow from the principle.

Instructional information can be categorised as being either transient or permanent. Spoken information or videos provide examples of transient information, while written information or static graphics provide examples of permanent information. The major characteristic of transient information is that current information, once presented, disappears to be replaced by new information, with the old information difficult to access. Permanent information, once presented, remains available and accessible for the duration of the instructional episode. The transient information effect or principle can be demonstrated when the same information is presented in either transient form such as speech or permanent form such as identical, written text. The effect occurs when learning is facilitated by the permanent version of the information. Cognitive load theory can be used to explain such results.

Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) specifies on a cognitive level how learning from multimedia instructional messages takes place and has produced many instructional principles that can be used to strengthen learning from multimedia. In this chapter, we explore the historical foundations of the CTML in cognitive psychology and in the field of instructional design. More specifically, we discuss three foundational theories to which the CTML is related that provide a strong theoretical and empirical basis for its cognitive and instructional principles and processes. These theories are Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch’s multistore model of memory, Allan Paivio’s dual coding theory, and John Sweller’s theory of cognitive load. We introduce these theories as they existed at the time the development of the CTML started, and discuss how they are connected to Mayer’s CTML. In addition to discussing the theoretical connections, we also discuss differences between the foundational theories and the CTML and recent developments in these theories.

The redundancy principle (or redundancy effect) suggests that redundant material interferes with rather than facilitates learning. Redundancy is broadly defined as any unnecessary information including irrelevant information, the same information presented concurrently in multiple forms or in unnecessarily elaborated form. According to cognitive load theory, processing redundant information with essential information increases working memory load which may interfere with learning. Eliminating such redundant information removes the requirement to process unnecessary sources of information. Accordingly, instructional designs that eliminate redundant material can be superior to those that include redundancy. This chapter summarizes research and theory concerned with the effect of processing redundant information in multimedia learning, a history of research in instructional redundancy, the conditions of applicability of this principle, and its instructional implications.

Human cognitive architecture indicates the manner in which cognitive structures and processes are organized. In turn, that architecture can be used to hypothesize the relative effectiveness of alternative instructional designs. Over several decades, cognitive load theory has simultaneously identified those aspects of human cognition relevant to instructional issues and tested the resultant hypotheses using randomized, controlled experiments. The cognitive architecture used by cognitive load theory has continually been developed and refined over this period. Currently, that architecture is based on evolutionary principles. This chapter outlines the cognitive architecture used by cognitive load theory and provides a general indicator of its relevance to instructional design issues associated with multimedia instruction.

The split-attention principle states that when designing instruction, including multimedia instruction, it is important to avoid materials that require learners to split their attention between multiple sources of information. Instead, materials should be formatted so that disparate sources of information are physically and temporally integrated, thus obviating the need for learners to engage in mental integration. By eliminating the need to mentally integrate multiple sources of information, extraneous cognitive load is reduced, freeing resources for learning (germane cognitive load). This chapter provides the theoretical rationale, based on cognitive load theory, for the split-attention principle, and describes the major experiments that establish the validity of the principle, identifies the conditions under which it is most likely to occur, and indicates the instructional design implications when dealing with multimedia materials.

Cognitive load theory (CLT) and the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML) offer empirically supported instructional solutions to the frequent problem of cognitive overload during learning from multimedia materials. Until recently, these solutions have relied completely on instructors creating high quality learning materials and learners having access to those materials. However, in practice learners frequently have to deal with digital and printed multimedia learning materials that have not been designed with any consideration of cognitive load. The self-management principle has emerged from research using the vantage point of the learner, and is based on empowering learners to apply CLT or CTML principles themselves to manage their own cognitive load. In this chapter we present the rationale for the principle, empirical evidence, and theoretical and practical implications.