This study aimed to identify and meta-analyse the neuroimaging data and hence synthesise a brain map showing the neural correlates of watching food commercials.

Published studies were retrieved and included into the analysis if they evaluated brain responses to food commercials with functional MRI and reported results based on whole-brain analysis in standard brain coordinates.

No additional restriction was placed on the search, such as the publication year and age of participants.

Seven papers that composed of a total of 442 participants fulfilled the inclusion criteria. All of them recruited children or adolescents.

Food commercials caused larger brain responses than nonfood counterparts in the cuneus on both hemispheres, which played a role in dietary self-control and modulation of food craving. Other brain regions involved in food commercials processing included the left culmen, left middle occipital gyrus and the right superior parietal lobule, which could be related to reward, emotional responses and habit formation.

These neural correlates may help explain the food choice and eating behaviours of children and adolescents that might be relevant to the development of obesity.

To provide baseline evidence of sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption in a sample of Irish children prior to the introduction of the SSB tax; to identify the energy contribution of SSB to daily energy intake; and to explore the association between SSB consumption and overweight/obesity.

Cross-sectional study.

Primary schools in Cork, Ireland in 2012.

1075 boys and girls aged 8–11 years. SSB consumption was assessed from 3-d food diaries. BMI was used to define obesity (International Obesity Taskforce definitions). Plausible energy reporters (n 724, 68 % of total sample) were classified using Schofield equation.

Eighty-two per cent of children with plausible energy intake consumed SSB. Mean energy intake from SSB was 485 kJ (6 % of total kJ). Mean kilojoules from SSB increased with weight status from 443 kJ for normal-weight children to 648 kJ for children with overweight/obesity (5·8 and 7·6 % of total kJ, respectively). Mean SSB intake was significantly higher in children with overweight/obesity than normal-weight children (383 and 315 ml/d). In adjusted analyses, children consuming >200 ml/d had an 80 % increased odds of overweight/obesity compared to those consuming <200 ml/d (OR 1·8, 95 % CI 1·0, 3·5). Family socioeconomic status and lifestyle determinants, including frequency of takeaway consumption and TV viewing, were also significantly associated with SSB consumption.

SSB account for a substantial proportion of daily energy intake and are significantly associated with child overweight/obesity. This study provides baseline data from a sample of children from which the impact of the SSB tax can be benchmarked.

To evaluate the impact of a preschool-based nutrition education programme consisting of twelve ‘hands on’ nutrition education lessons delivered during the school year on young children’s willingness to consume fruits and vegetables.

Quasi-experimental, pre-post design including the collection of plate waste evaluation data at the start and end of the 2015–2016 school year within two groups: (1) randomly selected classrooms receiving the intervention and (2) within conveniently sampled preschool classrooms not receiving the intervention serving as a comparison group.

Centre-based preschool programmes serving low-income families in the Denver metro area.

Three- to five-year-old children in preschool classrooms participating in the intervention during the 2015–2016 school year (n 308) and children enrolled in comparison classrooms (n 215).

Repeated-measures logit models assessed whether increases in the odds of consuming small samples of fruits and vegetables between Time 1 (pre-intervention) and Time 2 (post-intervention) were different for children within the intervention group compared with the comparison group. Analyses showed that the change over time in consumption of the three vegetable samples varied by intervention status with greater change occurring among children within the intervention group (edamame: P = 0·001; cauliflower: P ≤ 0·0001 and red pepper: P ≤ 0·0001). Unlike vegetables, the change over time in consumption of the two fruit samples was not different between children within the intervention and comparison groups.

An experiential-learning nutrition education programme can positively influence eating behaviours of low-income preschoolers in a centre-based setting by increasing willingness to consume vegetables.

Mexico ranks first in childhood obesity worldwide. However, little is known about the factors influencing maternal feeding practices. The present study aimed to estimate the prevalence of feeding practices and explore associations between weight concern, weight perception, sociodemographic characteristics and those feeding practices.

Cross-sectional.

North-eastern Mexico.

Mothers aged ≥18 years who were in charge of feeding a singleton child aged 2–6 years with no endocrine disease or visible genetic malformations (n 507). Information on six maternal feeding practices, concern and perception of the child’s weight and demographics were collected by interview. The mother’s and child’s height and weight were measured. The feeding practices questionnaire was subject to content, construct and convergent validity analysis. Then, mean feeding scores were obtained and prevalence and 95 % CI were determined for scores ≥3; multivariate logistic regression was performed.

Not modelling (63·5 %; 95 % CI 59·2, 67·8 %) and pressuring to eat (55·6 %; 95 % CI 51·2, 60·0 %) were the most frequent feeding practices, followed by easy access to unhealthy foods (45·4 %; 95 % CI 40·9, 49·8 %) and child control (43·2 %; 95 % CI 38·8, 47·6 %). They prevailed despite concern about the child’s excess weight or a perception of the child as overweight/obese. Education was associated with the highest number of practices (educated mothers used more pressuring to eat, less regulation and less easy access; or monitoring was less absent).

The frequency of certain feeding practices needs to be improved. Emphasis on the child’s weight concern, obesity perception and maternal education is essential for optimizing intervention planning.

Recent research implicates antibiotic use as a potential contributor to child obesity risk. In this narrative review, we examine current observational evidence on the relation between antibiotic use in early childhood and subsequent measures of child body mass.

We searched PubMed, Web of Science and the Cochrane Library to identify studies that assessed antibiotic exposure before 3 years of age and subsequent measures of body mass or risk of overweight or obesity in childhood.

We identified 13 studies published before October 2017, based on a total of 6 81 332 individuals, which examined the relation between early life antibiotic exposure and measures of child body mass. Most studies did not appropriately account for confounding by indication for antibiotic use. Overall, we found no consistent and conclusive evidence of associations between early life antibiotic use and later child body mass [minimum overall adjusted odds ratio (aOR) reported: 1.01, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 0.98–1.04, N = 2 60 556; maximum overall aOR reported: 2.56, 95% CI 1.36–4.79, N = 616], with no clinically meaningful increases in weight reported (maximum increase: 1.50 kg at 15 years of age). Notable methodological differences between studies, including variable measures of association and inclusion of confounders, limited more comprehensive interpretations.

Evidence to date is insufficient to indicate that antibiotic use is an important risk factor for child obesity, or leads to clinically important differences in weight. Further comparable studies using routine clinical data may help clarify this association.

To compare infant and toddler anthropometric measurements, feeding practices and mean nutrient intakes by race/ethnicity and income.

Cross-sectional analysis using general linear modelling. Ten years of survey data (2003–2012) were combined to compare anthropometric measurements, feeding practices and mean nutrient intakes from a nationally representative US sample.

The 2003–2012 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES).

Infants and toddlers (n 3669) aged 0–24 months.

Rates of overweight were higher among Mexican-American infants and toddlers (P=0·002). There were also several differences in feeding practices among groups based on race/ethnicity. Cessation of breast-feeding occurred earlier for non-Hispanic black and Mexican-American v. non-Hispanic white infants (3·6 and 4·2 v. 5·3 months; P<0·0001; P=0·001). Age at first feeding of solids was earlier for white than Mexican-American infants (5·3 v. 5·7 months; P=0·02). There were differences in almost all feeding practices based on income, including the lowest-income infants stopped breast-feeding earlier than the highest-income infants (3·2 v. 5·8 months, P<0·0001). Several differences in mean nutrient intakes by both race/ethnicity and income were also identified.

Our study indicates that disparities in overweight, feeding practices and mean nutrient intakes exist among infants and toddlers according to race/ethnicity, which cannot be disentangled from income.

Research indicates that children are at higher risk for obesity if their parents have been exposed to a larger number of stressors, yet little is known about effects of parents’ subjective, perceived experience of stress on children’s eating behaviours and adiposity and whether weight-related parenting practices (i.e. parent rules and positive family meal practices) mediate this relationship. The present study evaluated the direct and mediated relationship between parent perceived stress and child waist circumference and parent stress and child consumption of added sugars one year later.

Longitudinal panel data.

Eleven communities in Southern California, USA.

Data were collected over two waves from parent–child dyads (n 599). Most parents were female (81 %) and Hispanic (51 %); children were 11 years old on average (sd 1·53; range 7–15 years) and 31 % received free school lunch.

Perceived parent stress was not significantly associated with child waist circumference or consumption of added sugars one year later, and mediating pathways through parenting practices were not significant. However, parent rules were significantly associated with lower child consumption of added sugars (β=−0·14, P<0·001).

Results suggest that parent rules about the types of foods children can eat, clearly explained to children, may decrease child consumption of added sugars but not necessarily lead to changes in obesity risk. Parent- and family-based interventions that support development of healthy rules about child eating have the potential to improve child dietary nutrient intake.

To examine overweight and obesity (OWOB), changes in prevalence and potential risk factors in Barbadian children.

A cross-section of students were weighed and measured. The WHO BMI-for-age growth references (BAZ), the International Obesity Task Force cut-offs and the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention growth percentiles were used to determine OWOB prevalence. Harvard weight-for-height-for-age growth standards were used to estimate differences in OWOB prevalence from 1981 to 2010. Samples of parents and students were interviewed to describe correlates of OWOB.

Barbados.

Public-school students (n 580) in class 3.

Based on WHO BAZ, the overall prevalence of OWOB was 34·8 % (95 % CI 30·9, 38·7 %). A trend of higher OWOB prevalence was seen for girls across cut-offs, with significant sex differences noted using the International Obesity Task Force cut-offs. According to Harvard growth standards, OWOB has increased dramatically, from 8·52 % to 32·5 %. Children were more likely to be OWOB when annual household income was below BBD 9000 (OR=2·69; 95 % CI 1·21, 5·99). Eating dinner with the family every night was associated with a lower prevalence of OWOB (OR=0·56; 95 % CI 0·36, 0·87).

The sharp increase of OWOB rates in Barbados warrants attention. Sex disparities in OWOB prevalence may emerge at a young age. Promoting family meals may be a feasible option for OWOB prevention. Understanding familial and sociodemographic factors influencing OWOB will be useful in planning successful intervention or prevention programmes in Barbados.

Maternal depressive symptoms negatively impact mothers’ parenting practices and children's development, but the evidence linking these symptoms to children's obesity is mixed.

We use a large sample to examine contemporaneous and lagged associations between maternal depressive symptoms and children's BMI, obesity and food consumption, controlling for background characteristics.

Data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), a longitudinal study of children from infancy through kindergarten in the USA, were collected at four waves from 2001 to 2007, when children were 9 months, 2 years, 4 years and 5½years of age, through surveys, child assessments and observations.

A sub-sample of children from the ECLS-B is used (n 6500).

Between 17 % and 19 % of mothers reported experiencing depressive symptoms; 17 % to 20 % of children were obese. Maternal depressive symptoms were associated with a small decrease in the likelihood her child was obese (0·8 percentage points) and with lower consumption of healthy foods. The duration of maternal depressive symptoms was associated with higher BMI (0·02 sd) among children whose parents lacked college degrees.

Results indicate that mothers’ depressive symptoms have small associations with children's food consumption and obesity. Among children whose parents lack college degrees, persistent maternal depressive symptoms are associated with slightly higher child BMI. Findings highlight the need to control for depression in analyses of children's weight. Interventions that consider maternal depression early may be useful in promoting healthy weight outcomes and eating habits among children.

To assess the prevalence of overweight and obesity in children with congenital heart disease and compare them with age-matched healthy children in Southwestern Ontario, Canada.

We compared the Center of Disease Control weight and body mass index z-scores of 1080 children, aged 2 to 18 years, who presented to our paediatric cardiology outpatient clinic from 2008 to 2010 for congenital heart disease with 1083 healthy controls.

In all, 18.2% of the children with congenital heart disease and 20.8% of healthy children were identified to be either overweight or obese. Overall, the weight category distribution had been similar between the congenital heart disease and healthy control groups, as well as between the congenital heart disease subgroups. There was no difference in normal weight and overweight/obese categories between children with congenital heart disease and healthy children. The underweight category, however, showed a significantly higher prevalence in congenital heart disease compared with healthy children (6.8 and 4.5%, respectively, p = 0.03).

The prevalence of overweight/obesity did not differ in children with congenital heart disease compared with age-matched healthy children; however, it is still high (18.2%). Obesity may represent an additional risk factor for the long-term cardiovascular health of congenital heart disease patients aside from the underlying heart defect.

The emphasis in school nutrition policy has been on vending and competitive items. Our study was designed to characterize and quantify the amount and source of other foods and beverages on school campuses.

A cross-sectional observational study was conducted using a specially designed objective nutrition observation system.

One low-income school district in southern California with six elementary and two middle schools.

Data were not collected from individual children. A total of 4033 students, 42 % of whom were Hispanic/Latino, 26 % African American and 21 % non-Hispanic white, were observed across school settings.

Data were collected continuously from 9 January 2008 to 16 June 2010. Healthy foods had, per serving, total energy ≤732 kJ (≤175 kcal), total fat content ≤35 %, total saturated fat ≤10 %, sugar less ≤15 g, sodium <200 mg and trans-fat ≤0·5 g. Healthy beverages were only 100 % juice or water, and unflavoured non-fat, 1 %, 2 % milk and soya or rice milk. The system had high inter-rater reliability (r = 0·78 to 0·99), percentage agreement (83 % to 100 %) and test–retest reliability (r = 0·81 to 0·98). Significantly more unhealthy foods and beverages than healthy items were observed on all campuses (P < 0·001). An average of 1·26 (sd 0·46) items per student per week was found with an average of 0·86 (sd 0·34) unhealthy items per child per week.

There were substantial amounts of unhealthy foods and beverages brought onto campuses for classroom rewards, celebrations and fundraising that should be targeted for intervention.

Due to a proliferation of measures for different components of the home environment related to childhood obesity, the purpose of the present systematic review was to examine these tools and the degree to which they can validly and reliably assess the home environment.

Relevant manuscripts published between 1998 and 2010 were obtained through electronic database searches and manual searches of reference lists. Manuscripts were included if the researchers reported on a measure of the home environment related to child eating and physical activity (PA) and childhood obesity and reported on at least one psychometric property.

Of the forty papers reviewed, 48 % discussed some aspect of parenting specific to food. Fifty-per cent of the manuscripts measured food availability/accessibility, 18 % measured PA availability/accessibility, 20 % measured media availability/accessibility, 30 % focused on feeding style, 23 % focused on parenting related to PA and 20 % focused on parenting related to screen time.

Many researchers chose to design new measures for their studies but often the items employed were brief and there was a lack of transparency in the psychometric properties. Many of the current measures of the home food and PA environment focus on one or two constructs; more comprehensive measures as well as short screeners guided by theoretical models are necessary to capture influences in the home on food and PA behaviours of children. Finally, the current measures of the home environment do not necessarily translate to specific sub-populations. Recommendations were made for future validation of measures in terms of appropriate psychometric testing.

The purpose of the study was to test the moderating influence of two risk factors, maternal depression and socio-economic status (SES), on the association between authoritarian and permissive parenting styles and child obesity.

Correlational, cross-sectional study. Parenting style was measured with the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ). Maternal depression was measured using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). BMI-for-age percentile was used to categorize children by weight status (children with BMI-for-age ≥95th percentile were classified as obese). SES was computed from parent education and occupational status using the four-factor Hollingshead index.

Rural public schools in a mid-western state in the USA.

One hundred and seventy-six mothers of first-grade children (ninety-one boys, eighty-five girls) enrolled in rural public schools.

Both maternal depression and SES were found to moderate the permissive parenting style/child obesity association, but not the authoritarian/child obesity association. For depressed mothers, but not for non-depressed mothers, more permissive parenting was predictive of child obesity. Similarly more permissive parenting was predictive of child obesity among higher SES mothers, but not for lower SES mothers.

Maternal depression and SES interact with permissive parenting style to predict child obesity. Future research should examine the relationship among these variables using a longitudinal design.

The aim of the present study was to describe the nature and extent of food marketing on popular children’s websites and food product websites in Australia.

Food product websites (n 119) and popular children’s websites (n 196) were selected based on website traffic data and previous research on frequently marketed food brands. Coding instruments were developed to capture food marketing techniques. All references to food on popular children’s websites were also classified as either branded or non-branded and according to food categories.

Websites contained a range of marketing features. On food product websites these marketing features included branded education (79·0 % of websites), competitions (33·6 %), promotional characters (35·3 %), downloadable items (35·3 %), branded games (28·6 %) and designated children’s sections (21·8 %). Food references on popular children’s websites were strongly skewed towards unhealthy foods (60·8 % v. 39·2 % healthy food references; P < 0·001), with three times more branded food references for unhealthy foods. Branded food references displayed similar marketing features to those identified on food product websites.

Internet food marketing uses a range of techniques to ensure that children are immersed in brand-related information and activities for extended periods, thereby increasing brand familiarity and exposure. The relatively unregulated marketing environment and increasing use of the Internet by children point to the potential increase in food marketing via this medium. Further research is required to investigate the impact of Internet food marketing on children’s food preferences and consumption, and regulatory options to protect children.