In a 2x2 factorial design, (n=6) sheep were either transported by road for 15h or kept in their home pens, and then either starved for 12h with access to water or offered hay ad libitum, with access to water. All groups were offered hay and water 12h after transport. Behavioural observations and measurements of dehydration and feed restriction were made before, during, and for 24h post-transport, to evaluate the implications of these procedures for the welfare of sheep.

After the journey, the immediate priority for the sheep was to eat. Consumption of hay increased water intake and reduced the time spent lying down. The plasma Cortisol concentration was greater in sheep which had been starved during the 12h post-transport period, than in those offered hay during this time; and the plasma free fatty acid concentration was greater in sheep which had been transported than in those which had not. Although transported sheep kept without hay during the first 12h post-transport drank more water than those which had not been transported, the mean time before they drank was greater than 7h. During the transport period, there was less lying behaviour in transported sheep than in non-transported sheep but transported sheep did not lie down more posttransport than non-transported ones. This work suggests that sheep should be offered both feed and water after a 15h journey. However, when feed was not available after a 15h journey, drinking and resting did not appear to be immediate priorities.

Methods for culling wild red deer (Cervus elaphus) were compared by observing behaviour and collecting post mortem samples from wild deer shot: (i) by a single stalker during daytime; (ii) by more than one stalker during daytime; (iii) by using a helicopter for the deployment of stalkers and carcase extraction; or (iv) by a single stalker at night, and compared with farmed red deer shot in a field or killed at a slaughterhouse. Culling by a single stalker during the day and shooting in a field were the most accurate in achieving placement of a shot in a target area, but when compared across all methods, there were no significant differences in the percentages of deer that were either wounded or appeared to have died immediately after the first shot. Plasma cortisol concentrations in deer shot using helicopter assistance were similar to those in deer at the slaughterhouse, but higher than deer shot at night or during the day by a single stalker, or in a field. Deer shot using helicopter assistance and also deer culled by a collaborative and single stalking during the day had lower muscle glycogen concentrations than those culled by a single stalker at night. There was no evidence that a particular culling method was associated with an increased risk of accidental or pre-culling injury. If a helicopter is used to assist culling, the deer are more likely to be disturbed before they are shot and therefore, measures should be taken to minimise the disturbance to the deer.

The requirements of different electrolytes (sodium, potassium and chloride), dietary electrolyte balance (DEB) and salt source in broilers have considerably changed in recent times. The increasing level of sodium (Na), potassium (K) and DEB are associated with higher pH (i.e. alkalosis) while lower levels of chloride (Cl) and DEB are linked with a lower pH (i.e. acidosis). A narrow range of DEB (150-250 mEq/kg) is recommended to overcome the variations in acid base homeostasis and normal blood chemistry especially in summer conditions. The supplementation of suitable salts like NaHCO3 and KCl are proven to be beneficial to sustain viability of various biochemical processes. The cations usually alleviate whereas anions exacerbate the lysine:arginine antagonism. In most cases, the electrolytes and their balance (DEB) are considered ineffective in order to influence carcass and related traits; however, the supplementation of their respective salts, particularly NaHCO3 and KCl under heat stress, showed contrary but potentially useful results. The role of electrolytes in combination with coccidiostats is still ambiguous; however, the level of both entities (electrolytes and coccidiostats) should be kept low and studied in detail for mutual compatibility. The inclusion level of electrolytes from various salt sources changes whenever there is change in coccidiostat and environmental condition. Keeping in mind environmental constraints, it is recommended to use the lowest dosage of NaHCO3/ NaCl alongside ionophores. Consequently, it is recommended to supplement electrolytes through a combination of NaHCO3 and KCl, and maintaining dietary electrolyte balance (150-250 mEq/kg) is mandatory to exploit improved physiological responses of broilers for maximum growth response.

The aim of the study was to determine changes of serum cortisol and biochemical, haematological and antioxidant enzyme variables in the blood of horses sampled during the pre-slaughter period (in the lairage and in the stunning box) and during exsanguination. A total of 24 Slovenian warm-blooded horses were observed. Blood samples for determination of serum cortisol and biochemical, haematological (red blood cell count, haematocrit, haemaglobin concentration) and antioxidant enzyme (whole blood superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase) variables were collected by venipuncture of the left jugular vein in the lairage pen, 60 min before stunning (lairage) and immediately before stunning (stunning box). At exsanguination, blood samples were collected from the wound at the time of jugular vein sticking. During blood collection in the lairage pen and in the stunning box, horses were gently restrained with a halter. They were stunned using a penetrating captive bolt pistol impelled by air and were bled by jugular vein sticking. Horses were physically active in the lairage pen and in the race before entering the stunning box. After stunning, the horses showed paddling movements with their legs. In horses, the plasma lactate and glucose concentrations, the serum potassium concentration, the activities of the serum muscle enzymes aspartate aminotransferase and creatine kinase, and values of most of the other biochemical (Table 1) and haematological variables (Table 2), were significantly (P < 0.05) higher at exsanguination, than in blood sampled while they were in the lairage and in the stunning box. The serum concentrations of cortisol and chloride and the activities of alanine aminotransferase and antioxidant enzymes were not significantly different between the pre-slaughter period and exsanguination. All selected blood variables were not significantly different between the lairge and the stunning box sampling time, indicating no physiological stress responses of the investigated horses to stressors, such as novelty of the pre-slaughter environment and handling, present in the slaughterhouse between the lairage and the stunning box. However, the significantly higher values, at exsanguination, for the plasma lactate and glucose concentrations, serum muscle enzyme activities and haematological variables, than during the pre-slaughter period, might partially be attributed to stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system, caused by stunning and bleeding.

Velvet beans (Mucuna spp.) represent a group of legumes that was widely grown in the U.S. in the 1800's and early 1900's before being replaced by soybeans. However today, in developing countries, the velvet bean plant is increasingly used as a cover crop because it has many valuable characteristics, such as resistance to insects, weeds and drought that make it economically useful to subsistence farmers. The velvet bean plant is also prolific in seed production, and velvet bean seeds (VB) or Mucuna are sometimes eaten both by humans and other non-ruminant, monogastric animals such as chickens and pigs. Mucuna beans contain moderate amounts of protein (20–25%) and smaller amounts of fat (3–5%). Non-structural carbohydrates make up approximately half of Mucuna while the neutral detergent fibre content is about 10%. Minerals and vitamins in VB can contribute significantly to the needs of poultry as is typical of many legumes. The various species of Mucuna have amino acid profiles similar to other legumes, such as soybeans, that are commonly used as protein-supplying feedstuffs. However, VB contain a variety of anti-nutritional/toxic factors that are harmful to monogastric animals. These include: antitrypsin factors; tannins; cyanide; anticoagulants; analgesic, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory factors; L-dopa and others. Research to date has studied the physiological effects of VB on poultry growth, blood chemistry and organ anatomy. Attempts have been made to process the beans and remove the toxic factors by heating, waterextraction or other methods but with limited success. To use such a potentially valuable feed ingredient in poultry nutrition, the challenge for the nutritionist is to find ways to diminish the harmful effects of the chemicals in Mucuna by processing or treating the beans to remove or render harmless the toxic chemicals. This review will summarize the history of these efforts.

Energy metabolism during flushing of mink (Mustela vison) in relation to a control group was studied by means of combining pooled data from balance and respiration experiments carried out in 1993 (experiment I) and 1994 (experiment II) and some blood metabolites from experiment II. The experiments, which were divided into six 1-week balance periods, started on 7 February and continued until 22 March. Flushing was performed by restricted feeding in periods 2 and 3 and refeeding in periods 4 and 5. Each balance period included a 24-h measurement of heat production by means of indirect calorimetry in open-air circuit respiration chambers. In experiment II blood samples were taken at weekly intervals and analysed for total triiodothyronine, total thyroxine, free thyroxine, glucose, insulin and fructosamine. Generally, intake of digestible nutrients and energy metabolism measurements within the flushed group were strongly influenced by period (energy supply), whereas they remained stable in the control group and differences between treatment groups over the total experiment were non-significant. The fluctuation in energy status induced by flushing did not involve major changes in body weight. Blood metabolites reflected the food intake by being fairly stable in the control group and decreasing during restriction and increasing during refeeding in the flushed group (P < 0·05). As an effect of flushing the number of corpora lutea increased significantly (P < 0·05).

The effects on the behavioural and physiological responses of sheep of providing rest, food and water (lairage) during 24 h of either road transport or stationary confinement (treatment) were investigated. Twenty-four hours of continuous treatment was compared with 12 h of treatment followed by either 12 h of lairage, 3 h of lairage or 3 h of food and water on the vehicle, followed by a second 12 h of treatment. A further group of sheep was kept as controls. The plasma cortisol concentration was increased at the start of the journey and after 24 h of continuous transport it was still greater than that in controls (P < 0·05). Apart from a mobilization of body energy reserves as indicated by raised plasma concentrations offree fatty acids after 12 h and β-hydroxybutyrate after 24 h there was no evidence that the welfare of the sheep during the journey was compromised after a particular time. During the lairage and immediately after the second 12-h transport period, the sheep appeared to be hungry. Although sheep transported for 24 h without lairage drank more post transport than controls, there was no biochemical evidence of dehydration during the journey. The sheep lay down during the journey and there was no apparent difference between lairage treatments in the proportion of scans spent lying down during either the second 12-h treatment period or during the first 12 h post treatment. There were fewer potentially traumatic events during the second 22 h of the 24-h journey than during the first 12 h of the journey and no apparent effect of lairage during the journey on the frequency of potentially traumatic events during the second 12-h period of transport.

There was evidence to suggest that a period of lairage during a 24-h journey can be beneficial in providing sheep with an opportunity to eat, drink and avoid the stressors associated with transport. However, providing hay and water on the vehicle during a 3-h stationary period as compared with unloading into a lairage cannot be recommended. Although sheep readily ate hay on the vehicle, they did not drink sufficient water. This resulted in dehydration and a greater plasma cortisol concentration during the remainder of the journey than in those that had been lairaged for 12 h and a greater water intake post transport than in those given either no lairage or 12 h of lairage.

There is limited information on the behavioural and physiological responses of sheep to the components of road transport. Behavioural observations and physiological measurements of ‘stress’, injury and dehydration were made on weaned lambs (35 kg) before, during and after either stationary confinement or transport for 22 h at four space allowances (0·22, 0·27, 0·31 and 0·41 m2 per sheep). Two groups were not loaded (a control group with access to food and water, and a group with no food and no water for 12 h). During the confinement and transport period, the proportion of scans spent lying and the proportion of scans spent ruminating was significantly less than that before treatment (P < 0·01). After 3 h of transport, the proportion of scans spent lying was significantly less at the 0·22 m2 per sheep space allowance than at the other space allowances. The proportion of scans spent lying down was only significantly greater during confinement compared with transport at the 0·22 m2 per sheep space allowance and during the first 6 h at the 0·31 m2 per sheep space allowance. During transport, the heart rate and plasma cortisol concentration were greater than during stationary confinement (P < 0·05), indicating that some aspect of the journey was acting as a stressor. During transport the frequency of losses of balance and the frequency of slips was less at the 0·22 m2 per sheep space allowance than at the 0·27 and 0·41 m2 per sheep space allowances. However, there was no effect of space allowance on either plasma cortisol concentration or biochemical measures of injury. The median frequency of potentially traumatic events during transport was <5 per h and there was little evidence to suggest that increasing space allowance increased the risk of traumatic injury. During the first 12 h after treatment, the proportion of scans spent eating was greater and the proportion of scans spent lying were less than those spent before treatment (P < 0·001). Post-treatment, water intake and packed cell volume were greater in transported sheep than in control sheep (P < 0·05). However, there was no significant effect of 12 h without water on total plasma protein concentration and plasma vasopressin concentration (P > 0·05). Under the conditions of this study, sheep with a live weight of 35 kg can be transported for 12 h at space allowances of between 0·22 and 0·41 m2 per sheep without showing major physiological changes indicative of injury and dehydration. However, the sheep appeared to be hungry after 12 h without food and showed a cortisol and heart rate response to transport, indicating that some aspect of transport was acting as a stressor. A space allowance of 0·22 m2 per sheep cannot be recommended for 35 kg sheep as there is insufficient space for most of the sheep to lie down during transport. Whereas a space allowance of at least 0·27 m2 per sheep does allow most sheep sufficient space to lie down.

Intensively reared rabbits are particularly sensitive to heat stress. For this reason it is useful to identify reliable stress indicators to evaluate peculiar stress conditions of the breeding environment.

In order to recognize which changes in biochemical and functional measurements can be utilized as stress indicators, three groups of eight New Zealand White rabbits, of 2·8 kg body weight and 11 weeks of age, were kept in individual cages and submitted to different environmental conditions.

Group 1 was located in a climatic chamber at 33·5 (s.e. 0·5)°C and relative humidity 0·62 (s.d. 0·05) and groups 2 and 3 (control) at 18·0 (s.d. 0·5)°C. Group 1 was given ad libitum a commercially pelleted diet, group 2 was pairfed with group 1, and group 3 was given food ad libitum. For all the groups, at days 0, 1, 6, 12 and 24, the following measurements were made: body weight, rectal temperature, food consumption and plasma glucose, cholesterol, urea, triglycerides, uric acid, and glutamate oxalacetate transaminase, glutamate pyruvate transaminase, thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances, vitamin A and vitamin E, SH-groups and total (peroxil) radical-trapping antioxidant parameter (TRAP).

Food consumption of animals exposed to 33·5 °C was strongly reduced in the 1st day (13·6 v. 161·6 glday); a gradual increase until the end of the trial was then observed (98·8 v. 177·3 gl day). Rectal temperature rapidly increased and remained stable and higher than in the control groups all through the trial (P < 0·01). The major changes in the measurements of the heat stressed animals were a significant increase of the plasma level of vitamin E at days 6, 12, 24 (P < 0·05), and a significant reduction of the plasma concentration of SH-groups and TRAP (P < 0·05).

The results suggest an impairment or overload of antioxidant systems after thermal stress, indicating a reduced resistance to biological and environmental stress factors. The results also indicate that some parameters of antioxidant systems can be used to select a significant stress indicator.

Productive and metabolic responses were determined in ewes given diets containing calcium soaps of fatty acids for a period of 90 days after lambing as compared with ewes given a control diet.

Yield of milk and milk fat, milk protein and milk lactose were increased over the experimental period by feeding calcium soaps. Live-weight changes after lambing were not different in the two experimental treatments. No changes in rumen metabolism were observed when calcium soaps were offered whereas plasma concentrations of protein, glucose, triglycerides, phospholipids and cholesterol were enhanced.

It is concluded that calcium soaps of fatty acids can be included in diets of ewes to increase production of milk and milk solids.

During clinical investigation of a commercial herd it was found that intake of supplemented poultry litter (PL) by beef cows at >10 kg/day, was associated with severe cachexia and a mortality rate of between 10 and 20% of cows. Postmortem analysis of 40 fresh carcasses and elevated serum levels of cholesterol, bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase, glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase and sorbitol dehydrogenase in cachetic cows indicated that the cows suffered severe liver damage. The interrelationship between liver damage and PL intake was subsequently investigated in three groups of 20 beef cows each, consuming 0, 3 and 10 kg PL respectively. As determined by the serum indices, intake of 3 kg PL seemed to be sufficient to cause liver damage, although these cows appeared healthy.

In another experiment, six beef cows were stall-fed a diet giving separate access to PL and wheat straw. PL intakes were 3·1,4·7 and 6·0 kg/day. Ruminal ammonia concentration was three to five times higher than the estimate of that required for maximal fermentation in the rumen. The high pH values (6·81 to 6·97) found are optimal for absorption of ammonia from the rumen. The combination of excess absorption of ammonia from the gut and low metabolizable energy intake might have been the cause of liver damage.