Eddi (or Stephanus) wrote a biography of Wilfrid, recounting the turbulent life of the controversial bishop and saint who worked for the Church and furthering his own career not only in the north of England but also for a time in Sussex. He also travelled on the Continent, visiting Rome on two occasions. In these excerpts we see him rebuilding churches at Ripon and York, on his travels, and at the centre of a conference at which Ælfflæd intervened, where a decision was taken as to Wilfrid’s future.

Ælred is principally famous for his spiritual works such as his work on friendship, written at the Cistercian monastery of Rievaulx in Yorkshire. Less well known is the letter he wrote to a friend regarding the dramatic incident involving a young girl at the Gilbertine monastery of Watton. The girl, after a sexual liaison with a young man in the male part of the monastery, becomes pregnant but when the nuns discover this they treat her and the man with brutality. When she gives birth, a miracle occurs and the baby disappears, apparently in accordance with God’s will. Ælred is asked to investigate and reports in a very compassionate and perceptive manner in subtle and beautiful Latin prose.

Readers of this chapter might be left with doubts whether England had a constitution in the fifteenth century and whether, if there was one, it underwent any significant change over the century. Difficulties in governing the realm, ambiguities about power and authority, and a fundamental lack of consensus about what constituted and who had a legitimate right to rule persisted from the opening years of the period through to its end. The only notable progress recounted here was in procedures and practices in parliament. This difficult century left England with a hunger for new assertions of power and authority in the succeeding one.1

The general observance of Salisbury customs throughout the islands of Britain and Ireland means that the occurrence of distinctive Insular Uses is somewhat restricted. The most widespread of the non-Sarum liturgies, observed throughout Europe, was that of the Benedictine monasteries, including in England the cathedral priories; these nevertheless often possessed their own individual customaries, as did other houses such as those of the Augustinian canons. The principal secular Uses, apart from that of Salisbury, were those of Hereford and York, although all dioceses had their local saints and minor differences. A full analysis of everything that was distinctive about diocesan usages in the provinces of Canterbury and York is beyond the scope of this chapter; instead, the focus is on a small range of comparable matter in the major Uses and in the variable customs of some other dioceses.

The relative scarcity of matrimonial proceedings in England (and perhaps Normandy) resulted from administrative arrangements. It does not highlight differences separating the area from the rest of the North. English diocesan officials did not exercise exclusive rights of first instance jurisdiction over matrimony. Diocesan officials operated in a distinct environment because they had to compete with countless tribunals for rights of adjudication. Commissaries and exempt judges went on rounds of supervision, setting up vetting stations, especially for allegations that did not attain legal levels of proof. Unilateral marriage claims were normally decided on the spot and before they could reach central locations. If records from visited and permanent seats of English church justice are read in conjunction, on the other hand, they yield quantities of marriage cases resembling those from Paris or Cambrai. The treatment of cases was again exceptional in that multiple proceedings on account of identical charges were often staged in the same diocese. The rules of canonical jurisprudence envisioned three tiers of appellate hierarchy at a maximum. In Anglo-Norman practice, the revision of prior rulings could pass many more times between commissaries, deans, and higher dignitaries.

Subscription series were a relatively late development in North-east England (in the late 1720s and early 1730s) and the first known concerts in the region were almost all benefits given by visitors to the area. This paper looks at the different types of benefits in the North-east during the eighteenth century, the similarities and differences between benefits in the region and elsewhere in England, and the advantages and disadvantages of holding such concerts.