In 2011, the Arab Spring led to numerous uprisings against authoritarian leaders across the Middle East. While the reactions of governments varied, Libya sparked the most interest given its notoriety as a pariah state and Colonel Qaddafi’s provocations against the regime’s domestic enemies. This chapter examines how the anti-Qaddafi coalition formed under the guise of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) and how the imposition of a no-fly zone to protect civilians slowly transitioned into a mission to destroy pro-Qaddafi forces while defending rebel positions. Momentum shifted as anti-regime forces developed innovative ways of communicating with NATO air forces, which provided more precise targeting. However, the downfall of Qaddafi – aided by air power – was a short-lived victory as the country fragmented along numerous political and tribal lines, with a full-blown civil war reigniting in 2014. To this day, numerous countries are backing different rebels that claim to represent the Libyan government.

Chapter 6 examines how the responsibility to protect was implemented after the Security Council adopted resolution 1973 and focuses specifically on the questions of if and when peaceful means were considered to be inadequate, and of how and by whom collective action should be taken. A reconstruction and analysis of Operation Odyssey Dawn, the military operation that France, the United Kingdom, and the United States began on March 19, 2011, demonstrate that the original unity displayed by the international community in its response to the Libyan crisis entirely evaporated by the time military force was employed in order to implement resolution 1973. Within three days, the coalition largely established a no-fly zone over Libya, and a variety of sources indicate that a massacre was most likely prevented. Yet, Operation Odyssey Dawn provoked sharp criticism and the United States, the United Kingdom, and France also faced considerable difficulties in agreeing on the future direction of the operation in Libya. Only after intense diplomatic efforts was NATO able to take over command and control of all operations in Libya by the end of March 2011.