Inferences are never assumption free. Data summaries that do not account for all relevant effects readily mislead. Distributions for the Pearson correlation and for counts, and extensions accounting for handling extra-binomial and extra-Poisson variation are noted. Notions of statistical power are introduced. Resampling methods, the bootstrap, and permutation tests, extend available inferential approaches. Regression with a single explanatory variable is used as a context in which to introduce residual plots, outliers, influence, robust regression, and standard errors of predicted values. There are two regression lines – that of y on x and that of x on y. Power transformations, with the logarithmic transformation as a special case, are often effective in giving a linear relationship. The training/test approach, and the closely allied of cross-validation approach, can be important for avoiding over-fitting. Other topics include one- and two-way comparisons, adjustments when there are multiple comparisons, and the estimation of false discovery rates when there is severe multiplicity. Discussions of theories of inference, including likelihood, and Bayes Factor and other Bayesian perspectives, ends the chapter.

This chapter introduces basic concepts of AI to lawyers, deals with key concepts, the capabilities and limitations of AI, and identifies technological challenges which might require legal responses.

The introduction sets out the different types of causal relationships that the law of the World Trade Organization (WTO) raises. It also defines both causation and non-attribution in the law of the WTO and discusses the fact that both are required in this legal context. The introduction foreshadows the contents of each of the five substantive chapters that follow. It explains the concept of the Tripartite Non-attribution/Causal Link Approach and discusses the advantages and disadvantages of taking an econometric approach to analysing causation. The introduction also explicates those causal questions in WTO law that fall outside the scope of the book as it explains why they do not fit with the concept of the Tripartite Non-attribution/Causal Link Approach. The introduction also explores some of the limitations of the book as well as containing a brief discussion of the sources and methodology of the book.

This chapter deals with a single, yet complex and over-arching topic, namely termination of the life of a contract. When a contract is terminated it no longer demands obligations from the parties, although the parties may be liable for damages or restitution. As will be shown, the CC distinguishes between two types of termination: termination proper and rescission. Given that termination produces significant consequences for the parties, the CC sets out general and subject-specific rules. General rules include those on force majeure, impossibility of fulfilment, discharge, set-off, novation and the effects of the death of one of the parties to a contract (among others). Subject-specific rules concern the likelihood of termination in respect of particular contracts, such as leases, deposits, employment and others. The chapter goes on to show that, exceptionally, termination or rescission is automatic, while in the majority of cases one of the parties, typically the debtor, must apply to the courts for termination or rescission.

This chapter examines the question of prior restraints and other limitations to artistic freedom, pointing to the lack of a precise definition of ‘censorship’. Which grounds of prior restraint are legitimate or necessary under international law? is there an obligation for States to ban exhibitions such as Mirroring Evil: Nazi Imagery or the exhibition Ode to the Sea displaying artworks made by prisoners from Guantànamo Bay? When can States legitimately restrict artistic freedom? And how do international bodies draw the fine line between illegitimate censorship, legitimate restrictions and regulation? The chapter discusses the problem of artistic expressions inciting to hatred and other types of incitement (negationism, revisionism and Holocaust denial), in light of international standards. It further offers a more detailed approach to the methodology of human rights bodies in defining limitations to artistic freedom (and more broadly balancing conflicting interests), including the problem of artists’ ‘duties and responsibilities’. Finally, it examines the responsibility of non-State actors for human rights violations, if any, in the case of private exhibitions and events that incite to racism, hatred or misogyny, as well as similar issues arising in digital arts, on the web and social media platforms.

Party autonomy is often said to be the backbone of international arbitration. This liberalist thinking rests upon the premise that arbitration is a dyadic process between two rational parties. On this view, party autonomy is not only the source of any arbitral tribunal’s adjudicatory authority; it also allows the parties to decide how that adjudicatory authority is to be exercised.

This chapter examines the advantages and the hazards of the current approach to environmental public interest litigation, including climate litigation, in Pakistan. It begins with a look at the history of environmental litigation in Pakistan. Building upon that, the chapter continues with an analysis of climate change litigation specifically and how it relates to broader judicial trends. The chapter concludes by underscoring the limitations of climate public interest litigation in Pakistan, despite some high-profile wins.

This chapter is about reflection on, refinement of, and future use of the EV framework. The process of reflecting on the development of the EV framework and discussing considerations for future applications of it will enable me to highlight the most salient interconnections and differentials between the Sierra Leone and Paradises in Peril case studies and make clear the transcendent local to global patterning of environmental violence. In the course of discussing these reflections I pay particular attention to the way my own views of EV and subsequent development of the EV framework evolved through my fieldwork and engagements with varied interlocutors, from villagers to government officials. I will also clarify some final points on the EV framework to facilitate its use going forward and to outline points of improvement that will take time and iteration to calibrate. I will then present three critical junctures of EV that the model helped make apparent by distilling the substantive subtleties of each complex case, facilitating the triangulation of these underlying critical realities of EV that enable it to be pervasive and pernicious in the human niche.

In this concluding chapter of the book, we summarize what we have found in the previous chapters and discuss the theoretical significance and limitations of our findings. Furthermore, based on these reflections, we provide some recommendations for policy making. In the first section we return to our master hypotheses that we introduced in Chapter 3. Most importantly, we conclude that there is robust evidence that both governmental and territorial power-sharing practices tend, on average, to reduce conflict compared to situations characterized by their absence (see Master Hypotheses 1a and 1b respectively). We summarize the findings pertaining to the other Master Hypotheses as well. The discussion on the limitations of our findings focuses primarily on implications of power sharing on other outcomes than peace and conflict, such as democracy and economic development, but also some of the simplifying assumptions that have supported our analysis, such as the unity of ethnic groups. Finally, the discussion of policy implications reminds the reader that our results are probabilistic rather than deterministic. Still our analysis sheds light on why critics of power sharing may have overstated their case. For instance, failure to consider implementation difficulties could render power sharing ineffective or even counter-productive. In particular, such practices may be particularly effective before the first outbreak of violence, which confirms the importance of conflict reduction through preventive measures, rather than merely through conflict resolution once conflict has already erupted.

This is a part of the scientific paper that today is often appended after rest of the paper has been reached. It has to give details of the techniques used, the reason for their selection and exact details of the procedures.The need for proper controls is discussed. Sources of materials have to be identified, modifications and limitations are to be included. Confidence in the data that emerges means that statistical tests must be appropriate. How this quite tedious section of the paper can best be assembled is explained.

The chapter explores the ECHR approach to the minimum standards of the environmental minimum. These standards apply once a specific risk has been established and are derived either from domestic and international legal norms, or in lieu of these, established and emerging scientific evidence. Notably, unclear or contradictory scientific evidence grants states a wide margin of appreciation in formulating a regulatory response. Should a violation of minimum standards be established, individuals have a claim based on the right invoked at the specific risk stage. The question for the ECHR case law is whether it requires the enforcement of legal norms, and mandates subsidiary recourse to established and emerging scientific evidence in their absence. The ECHR generally meets these requirements: a clear majority of cases where domestic environmental regulations were ignored by authorities also resulted in a violation of the ECHR. However, the chapter acknowledges some enduring concerns, notably the failure of the Court to invariabley find violations where states fail to consistently enforce domestic law and its deferential approach in some cases where a state had no legal norms to enforce.

Testing with equivalence partitions introduces the reader to the first and simplest form of black-box and unit testing. First a worked example is used to demonstrate how to progress from a specification of the software to a fully automated test. The steps of the process are then examined in more detail, and the strengths and weaknesses examined through the introduction of faults into the software. The chapter ends, as do all the chapters which introduce new testing techniques, with notes for the experienced tester.

Some forms of testing are significantly more time consuming to develop, and all-paths coverage is one of these. Is introduced to the reader as it is one of the most powerful forms of white-box testing, ensuring that every path from the beginning to the end of the code is exercised during testing. It is unlikely that a tester will use this technique in practice, but an understanding of this technique provides a baseline to compare other white-box tests against.

Building on the knowledge gained in chapter 1, this chapter explains the next form of black-box testing, based on the boundary values of each equivalence partition.

As an introduction to white-box testing, the first technique presented shows how to identify lines of code that have not been executed during testing, and how to develop additional tests to ensure that they produce the correct results when executed.

There is a subtle distinction between statements in a program, and the branches between those statements. Even with full statement coverage, faults may remain. This chapter presented shows how to identify branches in the code that have not been taken during testing, and how to develop additional tests to ensure that they produce the correct results when they are taken.

Combinations of different inputs, when not correctly handled, are a frequent cause of faults in software. Decision tables allow the tester to identify these combinations, and further improve the test coverage. Building on the knowledge gained in the previous chapters, this chapter explains how to identify casues and effects, build a decision table, and then use the rules in the table to develop test cases and automated tests.

EEGs are a simple and commonly used neurological test that most trainees find hard to interpret. Summations of excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials of pyramidal neurons in the superficial layers of the cortex generate electrographic activity. These occur constantly, hence normal electrographic activity is continuous. Subcortical structures such as the thalamus and reticular activating system (RAS) modulate cortical neuronal activity, resulting in electrographic rhythms. A sizable area of cortex is required to generate enough signal on scalp recordings. Small potentials may be missed. Voltage is current times resistance (Ohm’s law). EEGs are used in a variety of clinical care settings, including clinics, wards, emergency rooms, critical care units, and operating rooms. Like every other test, the EEG has significant technical and practical limitations. EEG electrodes should have low impendences (less than 5 ohms). Electrodes are placed on the scalp using a standardized system (international 10-20 system). EEGs should be calibrated before and after each recording. Each major division is 1 second within which there are five subdivisions of 200 milliseconds each. For adult records, most readers will use a sensitivity of 7 uV/mm, low-frequency filter of 1 Hz, high-frequency filter of 70 Hz, notch filter (60 Hz), and paper speed of 30 mm per second.