Previous chapters showed that learners are ready to engage in instruction that addresses sophistication. It therefore behooves the field to examine what the construct of “pronunciation” means to both learners and practitioners.

The present chapter explores the need for new assessment criteria; it makes a call for research incorporating variables that would examine, for example, L2 learners’ awareness of what we call “sophisticated-language use” so as to match their manifested beliefs with how they are able to describe what advancedness should look like.

Are we, as scholars, helping to perpetuate elite-bilingualism and nativespeakerism? And how do we affect identity construction among L2 learners and heritage speakers? We assert that the communicative approach in teaching and assessment needs to shift to a more holistic and sociocognitive approach. This also extends to the need to reconceptualize our focus of assessment so that all skills, as well as other forms of literacy and cultural awareness are included.

What remains to be examined in the next chapters is learners’ self-perception, identity construction and awareness of their own social agency as L2 speakers

The present chapter set out to complement the quantitative analyses in Chapter 3 with more qualitative analyses of L2 learners’ beliefs and assessment of advancedness. We analyzed the different metalinguistic descriptors they produced to describe their beliefs and other speakers’ actual use of language, its content, manner, and the L2 speaker’s identity. We found that our L2 learners were only partially explicitly aware of the language, the content, and the manner exhibited by our L2 speakers, but that they were implicitly sensitive to categorically different levels of intercultural competence among different L2 speakers. We concluded that our L2 listeners could only partially imagine L2 advancedness, and we hypothesized that the lack of a full understanding of advancedness, operationalized as a lack of language awareness, could inhibit their ability to develop an L2 identity. Consequently, we call for future research to examine how institutional intervention, through curricular design or student advising, may help to make students more explicitly aware of the multifaceted nature of advancedness, as well its empowering effect on their identity and agency as an L2 speaker.

The chapter explores how plurilingualism potentially influences young children's perspectival cognition, including understandings of false belief and implications for cooperative science inquiry.

This chapter explores how participative reflective practice in the languages classroom facilitates multilingual identity development. We appraise constructs such as metacognition, sociolinguistic competence, language awareness and identity’s place in education generally, and languages education specifically. On these theoretical bases, we present an innovative identity-driven pedagogy entitled 'We are multilingual', which aims to raise learners’ awareness of language- and sociolinguistics-related issues and create a space for learners to understand and acknowledge their existing multilingual repertoires, and those of others. The goal is for learners to reflect on new language-related knowledge, to relate it to their own lives and future goals, and to offer learners agency to identify as multilingual if they so wish. The pedagogical content, example activities and teacher comments are included. Finally, we emphasise the importance of embedding personalized identity-based reflection into languages education, particularly in Anglophone contexts, where language learners often see themselves as monolingual, and where language learning has commonly suffered from low uptake and interest.

"I have learned these words when I first went to school in La Habana, Cuba." This is how Ofelia Garcia introduces the reader to an in-depth discussion of the concepts of translanguaging, multilingualism, plurilingualism, heteroglossia, xenophobia, and discrimination. She explains how well-intentioned educational programs can carry the stigma of Otherness and discrimination. She strongly advocates the use of the full semiotic repertoires of students, moving away from monolingual ideologies and neo-liberal economics, curricula and pedagogy.

Chapter 5 draws together the different aspects of language, grammar and acquisition to explore applications to language education and teaching. We first address the question of the purposes of language education and based on these, we explore dichotomies of nativeness versus foreignness; awareness versus ability; and grammar acquisition versus grammar skills. This permits a reconsideration of familiar problems in language teaching, such as the use of the L1 in foreign language teaching, or the development of meta-linguistic knowledge compared to communicative competence. The use of Virtual Grammar and grammatical concepts as a way to enhance and develop language awareness to address educational goals of language teaching is outlined. The chapter concludes by considering, in general terms, the role of descriptive and theoretical linguistics in applied linguistics.

This chapter reports on a poetic inquiry with English language learners in the Japanese English as a Foreign Language (EFL) university context. It focuses on the use of haiku – a Japanese poem containing seventeen syllables in a three-line 5–7–5 syllable pattern with the usage of a seasonal reference and a cutting word – and analyses features of spoken language in a corpus of English language haiku poetry written by Japanese second language (L2) learners. The chapter begins by reviewing previous studies of the use of haiku in L2 contexts. It then describes a quantitative, corpus-based study which involved the analysis of textual and linguistic features of English language haiku writing. The data, consisting of a total of 2,017 haiku poems written by 204 first-year engineering students at a Japanese public university, were submitted to statistical analyses. The results illustrate some specific features of English language haiku produced by Japanese L2 writers: haiku poetry is a short, descriptive text which presents each writer’s emotional reactions to his or her daily life, and it also includes such spoken language features as the twelve verbs most frequently used in spoken discourse (Biber and Conrad ), evaluative and emotive adjectives, contractions and vague language. This study suggests that the task of composing haiku in English can play an important role in L2 learning in terms of raising learners’ awareness of typical spoken forms in the target language.

Part I of the book explores literature as a vehicle for developing awareness of spoken language. Byrne and Jones examine dialogues from a literature corpus in comparison with a spoken corpus to understand the extent to which literary dialogues offer a plausible model of conversation. Tomlinson then examines how literature can be used as part of a text-driven approach in order to develop an awareness of pragmatic uses of spoken language. Jones and Cleary examine the effects on input enhancement when using televised literature to develop students’ awareness of features of spoken language. Iida focuses on students’ composed haiku poems and the features of spoken language they contain. Zhao and Liu report on a classroom-based action research study which employed screenplays. Part II explores the use of literature as a means of developing speaking skills. McIlroy examines the effects of discussing poetry at different levels of familiarity with learners Shelton-Strong analyses group discussion from Literature Circles, whereby learners discuss texts they have read. Finally, Fogal and Pinner measure changes in lexical complexity on the speech of learners as they discussed literature.

The final chapter goes beyond the set time frame of 1940-98 and into the present. Analyzing news coverage since the postwar period, in this chapter we identify a recurring Canadian news coverage on Canadian English, presenting the concept of "Canadian English" as either new or weird. In the light of the evidence presented throughout the book, the readers are in the position to decide for themselves whether there is a Canadian English. Canadian intellectuals are shownas often taking a rather negative stance, treating expressions of national identity as more or less akin to national jingoism, which is surprising given their generally international orientation. Attitude data are used to show that a "Canadian way of speaking" is firmly entrenched in the minds of today's Canadian residents, with 80 per cent of Canadians across all age groups positively confirming the concept. This is a radical change from only a generation or two ago, when especially younger Canadians were often sceptical. News coverage has since also seen a shift, being today exclusively positive. Such data should encourage educators to teach about Canadian English expressly, starting in elementary school. Using examples from www.dchp.ca/dchp2, it is shown that much remains to be explored about Canadian English.