Genesis and development of EFL learner’s dictionaries, innovative methods and features, and influence on dictionaries in other genres. Pioneering examples (NMED, GEW, ISED) featured simple definition, un/countability, verb patterns, collocations, ample examples, pictorial illustrations, IPA, etc., and paved the path for learner’s dictionaries to come; later generations of learner’s dictionaries converged into corpus basis and towards user-friendliness. Innovative and distinctive features include grading of headword importance, transparent grammar indication, signposts/menus for polysemous entries, controlled defining vocabulary, full-sentence definitions, and extensive use of corpora (manifest in frequency-based sense ordering, identification of frequent grammatical and lexical collocations, authentic illustrative examples). Features of English learner’s dictionaries are now incorporated in dictionaries for native speakers, and English learner’s dictionaries and English–Japanese dictionaries have been mutually influential. The evolution and innovation of learner’s dictionaries are mainly motivated by EFL learners’ needs for comprehension and production, driven by users’ rudimentary reference skills, and influenced by digital technology.

This chapter provides an overview of the process of conceiving, researching, editing, and publishing dictionaries, both synchronic (or commercial) and historical. Discussed methods and tools for making dictionaries range from traditional hand-copying of citations from print books and paper-and-pencil editing to sophisticated electronic technologies like databases, corpora, concordances, and networked editing software. The chapter shows how editorial conception of the needs and sophistication of the end user largely determines the dictionary’s length and headword list as well as the format, defining style, and level of detail in entries. The chapter goes on to examine how the pressures of commercial publishing, with its looming deadlines and pressing need to recoup investment by profits from sales, affect the scope of dictionaries and the amount of time editors can devote to a project, and how these pressures differ from those affecting longer-trajectory, typically grant-funded historical dictionaries. Assessing the consequent challenges for managing and motivating people working in these two very different situations, what may be the most important factor in a project’s success, concludes the survey of dictionary editing.

In diachronic development and contemporary structure of Slavic lexicons, we see influences of universal semantic mechanisms and specific historical processes, of language development, and of language contact. Old Church Slavonic played a role in forming Slavic vocabulary, especially in Russian, where specific or colloquial synonyms contrast with abstract or formal (golova ‘head as body part’ vs. glava ‘head as top in a hierarchy’). Semantic divergence of Proto-Slavic roots creates inter-lingual enantiosemy (e.g., Rus. čerstvyj ‘stale’ vs. Cze. čerstvý ‘fresh’). To compare languages we use regular abstract semantic relations, e.g. synonymy, antonymy, or lexical functions Magn, Oper. Linguistic expressions may differ, but we find similar semantic oppositions and derivation mechanisms. The languages share the same types of antonymy, albeit using different prefixes. Semantic bleaching patterns also agree: adjectives meaning ‘scary’ develop to mean ‘high degree’. Motion verbs such as ‘go’ come to mean process or result. We give case studies of lexical relations: Polish synonyms honor vs. cześć, Russian pravda vs. istina.

This chapter considers the shift towards artisan production in comic books, a process that has led to the elevation of its creators to the status of auteurs. While acknowledging the continued relevance of the term graphic novel, Section 2.1 argues for the adoption of graphic narrative as a scholarly designation. This section also introduces a representative corpus of graphic narratives and reflects on sampling and digitization processes. The author shows how existing scholarship focuses on a remarkably small percentage of an increasingly diverse field, preferring titles created by single authors, published originally in book form, and within the subgenre of the graphic memoir. Section 2.2 argues that the growth of this publishing category has been driven by a complex pattern of appropriation, differentiation, and the reinvention of popular form. Demonstrating how formal features interact with the demands of the literary marketplace, the author traces the evolution of brightness and color – features that have rarely been the focus of sustained consideration.

In this chapter we introduce the topic and aims of the book and define key terms such as anxiety, corpus linguistics and discourse. We provide the motivation for writing the book and outline other studies which have examined language in healthcare contexts, in particular focusing on studies which have looked at healthcare forums and/or mental health issues, as well as studies which have used corpus linguistics techniques for corpus-assisted discourse analysis. We then outline the research questions which drive the analysis in the book. We introduce the corpus that we worked with and discuss ethical issues in dealing with online data, as well as issues relating to data processing. We also provide a description of the tools and techniques that we used to carry out our analysis. We then reflect on our own position in relationship to the topic we are researching. Finally, we provide an outline of the remaining chapters of the book.

Here, we consider the interactive and online affordances of the forum by looking at the ways that posters respond to each other’s posts. What kind of language use characterises those which receive numerous responses vs those which receive none at all? We also ask, how do posters reach consensus and, considering the range of posts of people from different backgrounds, how is disagreement around understandings of anxiety negotiated? We code a sample of the forum posts using Egbert et al.’s (2021) coding scheme for functional discourse units. This is based on nine codes which indicate the particular purpose of a stretch of interactive text; for example, joking around, engaging in conflict or giving advice. Additionally, we look at uses of computer-mediated communication, including acronyms such as lol and emojis which are often used for affiliative purposes and disambiguation. This chapter uses corpus-based frequency approaches to identify longer stretches of interaction which are then examined qualitatively.

Our analysis begins with a focus on the word anxiety, using the corpus analysis tool Sketch Engine to provide a detailed ‘Word Sketch’ of its use in the forum; for example, looking at its occurrence in different grammatical patterns. This analysis identified four clines in terms of how anxiety is discursively constructed: 1) catastrophisation vs minimisation (e.g., some patients refer to having terrible anxiety while others downplay their condition using phrases such as it’s just anxiety); 2) medicalisation vs non-medicalisation (e.g., use of medical terminology such as anxiety disorder vs colloquial expressions such as anxiety crap); 3) personalisation vs impersonalisation (e.g., some posters represent their anxiety as a conscious being with its own wants and grammatical agency, such as anxiety is playing mind games with them, while others represent anxiety as an abstract concept, such as as an illness); and 4) internalisation vs externalisation (e.g., some people claim their anxiety is part of themselves – my anxiety – while others refer to it as something separate – the anxiety monster).

In this chapter we compare posts from the two countries which most posters identified as residing in. Within the forum, 38.84% of posts were made by people from the UK, 33.94% were made by those from the USA, 17.41% were made by people who did not specify a country and 9.81% consisted of all other countries. While the main language in the UK and USA is English, an analysis of keyword differences indicates numerous differences which point not only to spelling (favorite) and lexical choices (vacation) but also to ways that anxiety is understood. In addition, we consider the extent to which posters are influenced by external cultures; for example, is there evidence that British posters are adopting language and discourses used by American posters, or vice versa? As with the previous chapter, the analysis concludes by considering the role of culture on understandings of anxiety.

The concluding chapter of this monograph summarises the main findings from the preceding chapters and brings those findings together to establish overall patterns and trends in online discourses of anxiety. Concordant with our Critical Discourse Studies approach, these representations are then related to the contexts in which they are situated as well as their implications for understanding mental health in wider society. The chapter also critically reflects on the approach we took, the questions that emerged as a result of engaging with the corpus of forum posts and potential extensions to our study.

In this chapter we delve deeper into forum posters’ descriptions of anxiety by focusing on how they describe what it feels like to experience anxiety, what they believe causes their anxiety and how they best believe that their anxiety can be resolved. We consider also patient narratives around their anxiety. This chapter provides an overview of the linguistic content of the forum by carrying out a keywords analysis of the online corpus to identify words and phrases that are statistically salient in forum posts, comparing first posts with subsequent posts. These words are placed into thematic categories and a representative set are analysed in depth to illustrate different aspects of discussion around anxiety.

In this chapter we make use of the demographically tagged nature of the forum posts by comparing and contrasting posts made by female and male users. Some 52.02% of posts were made by posters who identified as female, 16.71% were made by male posters and 31.20% were made by posters who did not specify their sex. These figures are congruent with data on prevalence of anxiety by sex, which tends to indicate that women are more likely than men to be diagnosed with anxiety. We examine male and female keywords in the corpus, finding that men are more likely to use problem-solving language that focuses on explanations for anxiety and strategies for resolving it. On the other hand, women are more likely to use affiliative language to express empathy, sympathy and encouragement to others. The chapter also examines gendered discourses relating to anxiety by considering representations around words such as man, woman, macho and feminine. Our analysis concludes by linking our findings to consideration of gendered roles and societal stereotypes.

This chapter takes advantage of the fact that our corpus contains posts made over an eight-year period, along with the demographic information we have about patient age. We consider diachronic aspects of the forum in a range of ways. First, we look at how language has changed over the time, focusing on changes in anxiety discourses. We consider the corpus in terms of trends over the eight-year period. We also consider how the age of posters impacts on the ways they write about language, dividing the corpus into age-graded sections. We compare linguistic differences across these age groups, seeking to identify how language use reflects different understandings or representations of anxiety in relationship to age. Finally, we trace how posting behaviour ‘evolves’ over time; for example, early posts involve narrative histories, question seeking and expressions of emotional state whereas later ones involve advice-giving and expressions of affiliation as posters take on the role of ‘expert’. We also consider how participants leave the forum by looking at ‘final posts’. In what ways, if at all, do posters provide a sense of narrative ‘closure’ when they leave the group?

Chapter 1 of Discourse Syntax introduces the concept of discourse syntax and connects this topic to what students likely already know from a basic introduction to English syntax, like parts of speech, basic principles of canonical word order in English and basic patterns of grammatical variation, such as syntactic movement. It emphasizes that patterns of variation are systematic and often rooted in the surrounding discourse. The chapter also introduces corpora of English, such as the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), and the notion of reference grammars.

This chapter presents some of the most significant studies in the history of intercultural pragmatics (IP) research that have applied the methodology of corpus pragmatics (CP). In fact, the use of corpora has been an essential contribution to IP in crucial areas such as formulaic language, context and common ground, or politeness research, among others, with the conviction that CP has redefined the conceptualization of pragmatic competence in a globalized world. The chapter follows a topical structure in which critical areas of research from an intercultural and corpus pragmatic perspective are addressed, like the role of the lingua franca; the use of academic, professional, and scientific language; cross-cultural studies; prosody, multimodality, and computer-mediated communication and learner's corpora. In all these areas, the chapter highlights the significant research concerns and achievements that have helped to shape IP as an essential discipline in current linguistic theory. A final section with conclusions and ideas for further research will ensue.