The diagnostic accuracy of urine dipsticks was investigated using two different brands in five endemic communities of south-western Nigeria. The BM-5L test was used in 1992 to screen 566 subjects in two communities in Ogun State, while 1457 subjects in three other communities in Osun State were screened with the Combur-9 test in 2006. Haematuria gave a higher prevalence of infection than proteinuria irrespective of which strip brand was used (e.g. BM-5L test: 58.3 and 36.2%; Combur-9 test: 46.5 and 41.9%, respectively). Compared with egg microscopy (gold standard), haematuria identified over 90% of egg-positive samples using either the BM-5L test in 1992 or the Combur-9 test in 2006. The corresponding values for proteinuria were 58% using the BM-5L test and 82% using the Combur-9 test. Sensitivity of haematuria to infection was higher using the BM-5L test (92.4–93.5%) than Combur-9 (58.6–73.3%), while sensitivity of proteinuria to infection was higher using Combur-9 (55.5–80.4%) than BM-5L test (26.0–58.3%). However, both strip brands have comparable specificity for haematuria (BM-5L test, 88.3–99.5%; Combur-9, 88.9–100%) and proteinuria (BM-5L test, 94.4–100%; Combur-9, 98.7–100%) to infection. Based on these results we conclude that neither brand nor manufacturer has a significance effect on the performance of chemical reagent strips. However, the diagnostic value of both haematuria and proteinuria varied according to the positivity level adopted, intensity of infection and age, but was not affected by sex and village of residence.

Schistosoma japonicum obtained from Taiwan is a zoophilic strain that only infects domestic and small animals. Recombinant fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase (FBPA) derived from this strain was used as an antigen in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the diagnosis of human schistosomiasis. The full-length DNA sequence of FBPA was found to be 1092 bp, encoding a protein of 363 amino acid residues, with a molecular mass of 39.6 kDa. A total of 120 participants were recruited from China and Taiwan to evaluate the diagnostic value of this recombinant protein. In these participants, 34 were found to be infected with S. japonicum, 16 with Ascaris lumbricoides, 15 with hookworm, 13 with Paragonimus westermani and 13 with Clonorchis sinensis, whereas 29 had no ova on faecal examination. Western blot analysis showed that the recombinant FBPA reacts strongly with schistosome ova-positive sera. The sensitivity and specificity of ELISA with FBPA were found to be 85.3% and 93.0%, respectively. These results indicate that FBPA derived from the Formosan strain of S. japonicum can be used for the diagnosis of human schistosomiasis.

The present communication evaluates the antigen B (AgB) family of bubaline isolates of Echinococcus granulosus with respect to their conformational propensity and also discusses the stretches of agretope. AgB, which is abundantly present in hydatid cyst fluid, is encoded by a gene family, AgB1–AgB5. Hydatidosis is of zoonotic and economic importance in India. Buffaloes serve as the intermediate host. However, to date the AgB family has not been fully analysed. During the present study two different primers used for amplification of AgB1 revealed homology to Echinococcus canadensis (G8) as well as E. granulosus sensu stricto (G1/G2). The sequence of AgB3 is homologous to that of the well-defined species, Echinococcus ortleppi (G5), and the predicted amino acid sequence of AgB4 is homologous to bovine isolates identified earlier. α- and β-amphipathic structures were recorded in all the antigens designated as T-cell receptor sites. The antigenic index of different stretches correlated with hydrophilicity because the hydrophobic residues are not accessible to the cells. In this study, we investigated the binding propensity of AgB to MHC II in order to determine stretches of agretope. Agretopes began with four hydrophilic residues. Two to three additional hydrophilic residues were present in the internal motif. This comparison of AgB and its family of bubaline isolates, with respect to their sequence information, α- and β- amphipathic regions, antigenic index and stretches of agretope is the first such report from India.

The objective of the present study was to report the occurrence of Trypanoxyuris in owl monkeys, using data from clinical and haematological examinations, as well as clinical chemistry (blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST)) of infected and uninfected animals. Twenty animals in apparently good clinical health were studied. The coproparasitological examinations showed eggs compatible with Trypanoxyuris sp. in 50% of animals. The number of red blood cells, haematocrit and haemoglobin levels were significantly higher in the males, compared to the females, irrespective of parasitism. However, comparing segmented neutrophils in infected males and females, a significant difference (P < 0.05) was observed. All blood chemistry values were considered normal for the species pattern, even though significant differences were observed for BUN and ALT in infected males. The infection by Trypanoxyuris sp. did not appear to interfere with the clinical condition of animals.

The predatory capacity of nematophagous fungi Duddingtonia flagrans (AC001), Monacrosporium thaumasium (NF34a), M. appendiculatum (CGI), M. sinense (SF53), Arthrobotrys conoides (I-40), A. cladodes (CG719) and A. robusta (I-31) on infective Ancylostoma sp. larvae (L3) was evaluated. Compared with the control without fungi there was a significant reduction (P < 0.05) of 87.02%, 82.74%, 47.93%, 60.49%, 76.89%, 71.33% and 86.02% in the mean number of Ancylostoma sp. (L3) recovered from treatments with the isolates AC001, NF34a, CGI, SF53, I-40, CG719 and I-31, respectively. Isolates AC001, I-31 and NF34a were more effective in capturing L3 during the in vitro assay. Isolates were then in vivo evaluated for the capacity to remain viable after passing through the gastrointestinal tract of dogs, while still maintaining their predatory activity against L3. Fungal isolates survived the passage and showed efficient predation 48 h after fungal administration to the dogs (P < 0.05). After this time, only the isolate NF34a remained effective up to 96 h after administration (P < 0.05). Monacrosporium thaumasium, D. flagrans and A. robusta are potential biological control agents of Ancylostoma sp. in dogs.

The activities of trehalose-6-phosphate synthase (TPS) and trehalose-6-phosphate phosphatase (TPP) were observed in muscles, individual parts of the reproductive system and haemolymph of Ascaris suum. The highest activity of TPS was detected in the upper uterus, while the lowest activity of TPS was detected in the ovary and oviduct of the nematode. Relatively high activity was detected in muscles, haemolymph and two remaining parts of the uterus. The TPP activity was the highest in lower length of the uterus, following muscles, ovary, central and upper uterus. The lowest activity of TPP was detected in the haemolymph and oviduct of A. suum. Besides TPS and TPP, trehalose was also detected in the studied tissues except the cuticle and the intestine. Glucose was present in all organs, but the highest concentration was found in the cuticle and intestine.

An update on the redial generations of Fasciola hepatica was carried out to highlight the different developmental patterns of rediae, the effects of some factors on these generations, and the consequences of such developmental patterns on cercarial productivity. The development of generations is dependent on the behaviour of the first mother redia of the first generation. If this redia remains alive throughout snail infection, it produces most second-generation rediae. In contrast, if it dies during the first weeks, daughter redia formation is ensured by a substitute redia (the second mother redia of the first generation, or the first redia of the second generation). Environmental and biotic factors do not modify the succession of redial generations, but most act by limiting the numbers of rediae, either in all generations, or in the second and/or third generations. An abnormal development of rediae reduces the number of cercariae and most are formed by the second cohort of the first generation. By contrast, most cercariae are produced by the first cohort of the second generation when redial development is normal. The mother rediae described by previous authors might correspond to the first generation and the second cohort of the second generation, while daughter rediae would be the second cohort of the second generation and the first cohort of the third generation. Under certain circumstances, daughter redia formation is ensured by the first two mother rediae or all first-generation rediae, thus demonstrating that the first mother redia is not the only larva to ensure daughter redia formation.

The present study was conducted to determine the prevalence of canine dirofilariosis in Hatay province, south of Turkey. A total of 269 blood samples were collected from owned dogs in this multi-centre survey between March and July 2006. Blood samples were examined by modified Knott and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) techniques to detect circulating microfilariae and antigens of Dirofilaria immitis, respectively. Seventy out of 269 dogs (26.0%) were positive for D. immitis. However, 61.4% of positive dogs had occult infection. The prevalence of canine dirofilariosis was heterogeneous in Hatay province, with higher values in shoreline (33.0%) and riverside (30.9%) areas followed by the lowland (25.5%) or mountainous (15.2%) areas. No statistically significant differences were observed in relation to sex (females, 33.3%; males, 24.4%, P>0.05). When evaluating the prevalence of D. immitis by age, the highest prevalence was observed in dogs older than 4 years of age. Large breeds (29.6%) and the dogs living outdoors (30.2%) showed a higher prevalence in comparison to small breeds (21.4%) and the dogs living indoors (10.5%), respectively. In conclusion, according to the results of this study canine dirofilariosis had a high prevalence in Hatay province. Therefore, prophylaxis against heartworm is advisable to decrease the incidence of canine dirofilariosis.

The objective of this cross-sectional study was to determine the prevalence and intensity of soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) in children aged 0–25 months and to identify the associated risk factors for Ascaris lumbricoides infections. The study was conducted in three villages outside Ile-Ife, Osun state, Nigeria in May/June 2005. Stool samples (369) were processed by formol-ether concentration. Ascaris lumbricoides (12.2%) was the dominant infection. Age, father's occupation and dog ownership were identified as the significant risk factors in the minimal adequate model for A. lumbricoides. The odds of being infected with A. lumbricoides increased as the children got older. Children aged 12–17 months and 18–25 months were 8.8 and 12.4 times, respectively, more likely to harbour Ascaris than those aged 7–11 months. The odds of harbouring Ascaris for children whose families owned a dog were 3.5 times that of children whose families did not own a dog. Children whose fathers were businessmen were 0.4 times less likely to be infected with Ascaris than those whose fathers were farmers. The findings from this study suggest that many of these young children, who are at a critical stage of development, are infected with Ascaris and that the prevalence of infection with this parasite increases with age. This study has highlighted the need to incorporate preschool children into deworming programmes in endemic regions and to investigate innovative ways of delivering cost-effective deworming treatment to this high-risk age group.

Despite being conspicuous members of neotropical lizard communities, aspects of the life history of many teiid lizard species are poorly known, especially endoparasites infecting the genus Kentropyx. We studied seven specimens of K. calcarata collected at an Amazonian site in Mato Grosso state, Central Brazil in 2007. Four species of helminth were recovered: Oswaldocruzia sp., Piratuba digiticauda, Physaloptera retusa and Physalopteroides venancioi. Piratuba digiticauda, a body-cavity, parasite had the highest prevalence (42.9%), whereas the stomach parasites P. venancioi and P. retusa presented the highest intensity of infection and abundance, respectively. Moreover, this is the first report of Oswaldocruzia sp., P. digiticauda and P. venancioi in K. calcarata and new locality records for all nematodes were assigned.

Monthly samples of Bulinus truncatus were collected during a year from a cattle-breeding farm located in the region of Sejnane (North Tunisia) to detect natural infections with Fasciola hepatica and determine seasonal variations of the prevalence throughout a year. Of the 163 adult bulinids, larval forms of F. hepatica were found in 39% of snails. Two peaks in prevalence, the first in June and the second in October, were also noted. Bulinus truncatus can be added to the list of potential intermediate hosts of F. hepatica.

Fasciola gigantica fatty acid binding protein (FABP) was evaluated for evoking an effective immune response in mice and rabbits, when delivered as a DNA vaccine in muscle cells. Polyethylenimine (PEI), 25 kDa, branched cationic polymer was used as a delivery vehicle for this DNA in the muscle cells of mice and rabbits. Naked DNA evoked mixed Th1 and Th2 responses in mice. PEI condensed DNA, at amine nitrogen over DNA phosphate (N/P) ratios of 4, 6 and 8 and with various DNA concentrations, failed to evoke a significantly higher antibody response compared to naked DNA in mice. Similarly, the humoral immune response to naked DNA administration in rabbit thigh muscles was poor and no boosting of this antibody response on administration of DNA complexed to PEI was observed. On metacercarial challenge, rabbits failed to show any significant protective immune response in both the naked DNA and PEI–DNA immunized groups. Administration of PEI alone (12.5 μg) in mouse thigh muscles caused significant muscle cytotoxicity but condensation of DNA with PEI had less of a toxic effect on muscle cells, which was inversely related to the N/P ratio. Delivery of plasmid DNA encoding F. gigantica FABP by high molecular weight polyethylenimine (branched, 25 kDa) did not boost the effective immune response in both the animal species, which could either be attributed to cytotoxicity associated with this cationic polymer or muscle cells being unsuitable target cells for PEI condensed DNA delivery.

Experimental infections of Lymnaea columella with Fasciola hepatica were carried out to test the effect of sympatric and allopatric combinations between parasite and host, by using snails and flukes from southern and south-eastern Brazil. Four groups of 50 snails were infected with four miracidia per snail: two groups in sympatric and two groups in allopatric combinations. Sympatric combinations between parasite and host were more efficient than allopatric ones when snails from Itajubá were used, but the opposite was observed in infections involving snails from Pelotas. The sympatric association between L. columella and F. hepatica from Itajubá was significantly higher than in the other combinations. We concluded that the host–parasite relationship between L. columnella and F. hepatica may vary according to the geographical origin of the snails and flukes involved.

Inequalities in body size among adult helminths can result in inequalities in reproductive output, with consequences for population dynamics and genetics. These inequalities can result from growth differences among larval worms inside intermediate hosts that persist into the adult stage. Here, we investigate the effects of both host body size and intensity of infection on the sizes of metacercariae of the trematode Maritrema novaezealandensis (Microphallidae) inside their second intermediate host, the isopod Paridotea ungulata (Idoteidae). Among the more than 1500 metacercariae recovered and individually measured, there was no relationship between the mean diameter of metacercarial cysts per isopod and isopod body length. However, intensity of infection correlated negatively with the mean diameter of cysts within an isopod, i.e. metacercariae in crowded infections attained smaller sizes on average. In contrast, the variability in cyst sizes per isopod, measured as the coefficient of variation, was independent of both isopod body length and infection intensity. Our results show that a disproportionate number of relatively small metacercariae come from the relatively few hosts in which a large fraction of all metacercariae are aggregated. The combination of aggregation and intensity-dependent growth generates inequalities in sizes among metacercariae that will be passed on to adult worm populations in definitive hosts.

The nematode Rumai rumai Travassos, 1960 (Philometridae) is redescribed from the tissues of the mouth, tongue, operculum and head of the arapaima, Arapaima gigas (Schinz) (Osteichthyes), from Mexiana Island, Amazon River Delta, Brazil. Additional data on the related Nilonema senticosum (Baylis, 1922) from the same host and locality are also presented. Rumai rumai is characterized by the presence of a sclerotized formation on the female cephalic end, dorsal and ventral cephalic projections, the shape and structure of the oesophagus and a conical caudal extremity. Males of both R. rumai and N. senticosum, specific parasites of the ancient arapaima fish in the Neotropics, remain unknown. The relationship between these tissue-dwelling nematodes and the aquaculture system of Mexiana Island is commented upon.