The central problem of our time is to achieve the effective management of the power relations of states. The world is constituted as a system of independent but interdependent states—independent in authority but interdependent in destiny. States are units of power. While power is a complex conception, for present purposes it may be construed in the narrow sense of force. Physical ability to kill, to damage, or to coerce, is the particular aspect of power which serves as the focus of this article. States are characterized by the possession, in varying degrees, of this capacity to damage or destroy each other. This power may be used in competitive struggle, producing destruction on a massive scale. It may be used unilaterally, producing enslavement and degradation of its victims. In short, both survival and freedom, both sheer existence and the higher values that enrich existence, are implicated in the problem of power. The national interest of every state, and the common interest of all men, in the preservation and development of civilization are threatened by the paroxysms of violence which states are capable of unleashing. Hence, the primacy of the task of controlling the use of force by states, of managing the power relations of states, cannot seriously be questioned.

Les derniers mois de 1960, les premiers mois de 1961 ont suffi a provoquer, dans l'histoire des Nations Unies, un tournant spectaculaire et peut-etre decisif, bien qu'il soit encore fort difficile de discerner la direction dans laquelle l'Organisation internationale va se trouver engagée. Au moment où ces lignes étaient écrites, les changements d'atmosphere et de perspectives etaient deja impressionnants. La diplomatic sovietique a été le moteur principal de cette evolution, l'affaire du Congo, l'occasion, ou le levier, la position du Secrétariat et de son chef, l'objectif. Car on ne saurait douter que si la personne de M. Dag Hammarskjöld est aussi violemment mise en cause, c'est, à travers elle, l'institution qu'il incarne et à laquelle il avait su conferer un prestige et des moyens d'action sans précédent qui est visée et c'est ce qui fait la gravite de la crise. Aussi n'est-il pas inutile, peut-etre, au moment où, passees les premières protestations, certains commencent à penser que des changements sont inévitables, de se demander ce qui est réellement en jeu. Pour ce faire, force est de se tourner d'abord vers le passé et de considérer comment s'est formée, dans la pratique des Nations Unies, la fonction politique dont ont été charges le Secretariat et surtout son chef. Nous devrons ensuite examiner les attaques dont elle a été l'objet et apprécier les propositions de réforme qui ont été avancées.

The traditional concept of embassies and missions abroad as custodians of the national interest is a familiar one which applies also in the context of United Nations diplomacy. The responsibility for advancing national policy through the United Nations is borne by permanent missions and special delegations–representatives who, like their counterparts in bilateral diplomacy, act in close coordination with a state department or foreign office and under the instructions of their home governments. Because of the multilateral and “parliamentary” nature of United Nations diplomacy, however, the task of UN missions and delegations is in many ways more exacting than that of their traditional counterparts.

Report to the General Assembly: In accordance with a resolution adopted during the fourth regular session of the General Conference of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the fourth report of IAEA to the UN General Assembly consisted of the annual report of the Board of Governors to the General Conference, covering the period July 1, 1959, to June 30, 1960, together with a supplement dealing with developments, including action taken by the General Conference, during the period July 1 to September 30, 1960. The report noted that during the period under review the preparatory activities of the Agency had begun to bear fruit and that in most domains the year had been the first full year of normal operations. One of the main goals of the Agency, the report continued, was to foster the safe use of nuclear power under economically competitive conditions, but in this area there were still innumerable problems to overcome. Since the cost of generating electricity from nuclear power plants, although steadily declining, was still substantially higher than that of producing conventional power except in a few special cases, the earlier nuclear power plans of a number of countries had been revised and construction of plants was not proceeding at the rate foreseen some years ago. With regard to reactor technology, the Board reported that work was being done to improve the performance of reactors and to reduce their costs of operation by detailed technical modifications, although the cost of research on advanced reactor concepts was so high that only a very few major industrial countries had the necessary material resources to conduct such research. While the Board considered it unlikely that nuclear—propelled ships would become economically competitive with conventional ships in the near future, progress had been made in this sphere in the year under review, as witnessed by the commissioning of a nuclearpropelled ice-breaker and the launching of the first nuclear merchant ship.

From its 921st through its 923d meetings the Security Council considered the complaint of the government of Cuba that the United States was planning direct military intervention in Cuba.Mr. Wadsworth, the representative of the United States and the first speaker, deplored the fact that because of continued provocation over nearly a two-year period the United States had been forced to break diplomatic relations with Cuba, and denied as false propaganda the Cuban charges that the United States was contemplating a military attack on Cuba. Mr. Roa, the Cuban representative, stated in his opening remarks that Cuba considered the Security Council the proper organ before which to bring its case, and that his country opposed any effort to transfer the examination of its claim to the Council of the Organization of American States. He charged, inter alia: 1) that United States materials had been air-lifted to counter-revolutionary groups in the Cuban mountains; 2) that United States Embassy officials had been engaged in espionage and in conspiracy with counterrevolutionary elements; 3) that false and harmful propaganda against Cuba was being broadcast from the United States, with the support of the United States government; 4) that mercenaries were being trained at Guantanamo Naval Base, with a view to launching a number of small military expeditions against different points of the island; and 5) that destroyers had been placed on the alert in Key West, ninety miles from Cuba. The ultimate objective of these movements, Mr. Roa added, was a military invasion of his country.

The resumed 30th session of the Economic and Social Council (ESOSOC) was held in New York on December 21 and 22, 1960, under the presidency of Mr. C. W. Schurmann (Netherlands). At the beginning of the 1135th meeting, the President read a note from the Secretary-General concerning the projected working agreement between the United Nations and the International Development Association (IDA), and introduced a draft resolution co-sponsored by Denmark and Japan callingon the President to negotiate with IDA with a view to drafting such an agreement. Mr. Makeev, speaking for the Soviet Union, stated that his government could not favor the draft resolution unless the proposed agreement included a provision recalling the terms of Article 58 of the Charter, relating to the coordination of the activities of the specialized agencies; the President replied that, although he was authorized to negotiate with representatives of IDA, he could not impose conditions. The delegates of China and New Zealand stated that they supported the draft resolution, and added that the essential point was to ensure liaison between the various organs dealing with development. The representative of Afghanistan likewise voiced support, pointing out that the draft resolution in essence merely requested the President to negotiate with representatives of IDA. The draft resolution was adopted without dissenting voice with the understanding that the President would take into account the observations of the members of the Council in the course of the negotiations

The fifteenth annual report of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, covering the fiscal year July 1, 1959, to June 30, 1960, was presented to the Board of Governors on September 27, 1960. The report noted that the year under review had clearly marked the beginning of a period of change in international economic relations, especially with regard to the less developed countries where new needs were emerging and new institutions and techniques to meet them were beginning to take definite shape. Although the external accounts of these countries had benefited from a substantial increase in the volume of their exports, their terms of trade had not shown a similar recovery, and their external public debt had increased. The Bank's lending for the year under review was slightly below the rate of each of the previous two years; it had made 31 loans totaling. $658.7 million as compared to 30 loans totaling $703 million in the previous year. Asia and the Middle East, sharing $273 million in loans between them, received the largest portion, while Africa received $183 million, Latin America $134 million, and Europe only $69 million. Lending operations continued to concentrate on basic facilities, with transportation loans amounting to $245 million, electric power loans to $208 million, and industrial loans to $146 million, while agricultural loans rose to $60 million, the highest sum in recent years. Net earnings, exclusive of receipts from loan commissions, came to $59.5 million, an increase of $13 million over the previous year; disbursements fell to $544 million, less than the $583 million of the preceding year.

The 147th session of the Governing Body of the International Labor Organization (ILO) was held in Geneva from November 15 to 18, 1960. With respect to the operational programs of the International Labor Office, the Governing Body decided: 1) to include the question of technical assistance in the agenda of the 45th session of the International Labor Conference, to be held in June 1961; and 2) to merge the Manpower and Employment Committee and the Technical Assistance Committee into a single Committee on Operational Programs, in order to coordinate better the operational activities of ILO.

The annual report of the Executive Directors of the International Monetary Fund for the fiscal year ended April 30, 1960, was transmitted to the Chairman of the Board of Governors on July 8, 1960. In its discussion of the world economy in 1959–1960 the report noted that the year which ended April 30 had been marked by a continual upswing in world industrial activity and an increase in world trade, with industrial production up 10 percent over the recession year of 1958 and the value of world trade increased by 6 percent. During this period of business expansion the leading industrial countries had achieved remarkable success in the delicate task of maintaining a high degree of economic stability, without having to place severe restraint on the forces which helped to sustain the expansion of output and real income. The prices of many industrial materials, especially metals, recovered, but the market for primary products remained weak, and the prices of foodstuffs declined. It became evident that, given the mildness of the postwar recessions, the most pressing problem for primary producing countries was not that of finding compensatory finance in connection with short-run fluctuations in export proceeds, but rather that of establishing a satisfactory long-run trend in the volume and prices of exports and of preventing inflationary pressures from causing imports to expand beyond the available resources of foreign exchange. During the year under consideration the lessening of inflationary pressures and the marked strengthening of the payments structure of the world, along with the increasing supplies of both primary and manufactured products, created a situation in which international competition made itself felt more and more strongly.

The Executive Board of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) held its 57th session in Paris from October 28 to December 12, 1960. Under the heading, Execution of the Program, die Board discussed the item “Commemoration of anniversaries of great personalities and events.” In connection with diis item it was decided to request the Director-General to dispatch circular letters to member states, national commissions, and nongovernmental organizations drawing dieir attention to an attached list of great personalities and events and asking them to inform the Director-General of action taken by them to organize such commemorative celebrations as they deemed appropriate.

The Executive Board of the World Health Organization (WHO) held its 26th session in Geneva from October 25 to November 4, 1960, under the chairmanship of Dr. H. M. Penido. Dr. M. G. Candau, Director-General of WHO, reported on WHO assistance to the Republic of the Congo (Leopoldville) deriving from the request of the Secretary-General and the Security Council in July 1960 that WHO take part in the UN emergency program in the Congo. Twenty-eight WHO staff members had immediately been assigned to the Congo, and within a few weeks 28 medical teams had been sent by 25 national Red Cross, Red Crescent, and Red Lion and Sun Societies as the result of an appeal by WHO to the International Committee of the Red Cross and the League of Red Cross Societies. These teams made it possible to get a number of hospitals operating again in the cities and in the interior. To meet the long-range medical needs of the Congo where there were as yet no native doctors, assistants medicaux were selected for further training and given WHO fellowships to attend medical schools so that they might become fully qualified doctors. To cope with the crisis the UN guaranteed the funds necessary for WHO to engage 130 health workers of all categories to work for the Congolese government. Dr. Candau concluded his report by emphasizing that, if political stability and normal administration could be effectuated, the medical problems of the Congo would not be difficult to solve; the preventative work carried out under the Belgian administration could then be resumed and the threat of the spread of disease effectively averted.

The press reported in late October 1960 that an Arab spokesman had announced plans for opening an office of the Arab League in New Delhi, India, in an effort to counteract Israeli overtures toward South Asia. The press report added that the New Delhi office of the Arab League would eventually have under its supervision League branches to be established in Ceylon, Burma, and Indonesia. It was reported that the New Delhi office would concentrate on such League matters as the Arab economic blockade of Israel, the Palestinian refugees, and Arab cooperation in oil and commerce.

The Caribbean Organization, a new organization for economic and social cooperation in the Caribbean area, was created under an agreement signed by representatives of the United Kingdom, the United States, France, and the Netherlands in Washington, D. C, on June 21, 1960. The new organization was to supercede the Caribbean Commission founded in 1946 by the same four signatory powers, which was in turn the successor to the wartime Anglo- American Caribbean Commission. The Caribbean Organization, reportedly set up as the result of the wishes of the people of the area and in light of their new constitutional relationships, was designed to remove the taint of colonialism attached to the paternal structure of the Caribbean Commission. Although the four signatories of the agreement were members of the Caribbean Commission, only France, representing the three French Overseas Departments of French Guiana, Guadeloupe, and Martinique, was eligible for membership in the new organization. Membership in the Caribbean Organization was to be open to the following: the Netherlands Antilles, Surinam, the Bahamas, British Guiana, British Honduras, the British Virgin Islands, the British West Indies, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands of the United States, in addition to France. Any of the eligible prospective members could accede to membership in the organization by notifying the Secretary- General of the organization or the Secretary- General of the Caribbean Commission. The statute of the organization, annexed to the agreement for its establishment, included in the purposes of the organization social, cultural, and economic matters of common interest to the Caribbean area, particularly in the fields of agriculture, communications, education, fisheries, health, housing, industry, labor, music and the arts, social welfare, and trade.

The third part of the twelfth ordinary session of the Consultative Assembly was held from March 1 to 3, 1961, under the chairmanship of Mr. Per Federspiel (Danish Moderate Liberal). At the opening of the session Mr. Federspiel welcomed, on behalf of the Assembly, the delegation from Switzerland, which was attending for the first time as observers, due to the fact that Switzerland had accepted the invitation of the Assembly extended to representatives of the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) to take part in Assembly debates on OEEC affairs and on general economic questions. Mr. Max Weber (Swiss Socialist), leader of the Swiss delegation, pointed out that this was the first time Switzerland had sent a delegation to an international political and parliamentary body, and expressed the hope that Swiss activities in the Consultative Assembly might eventually extend beyond economic and agricultural affairs.

The Scientific and Technical Committee of the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), holding its tenth session in Brussels on October 4, 1960, approved the following undertakings: 1) the establishment of a European information center on the use of radioisotopes; 2) Euratom's participation in studies of the problems involved in using nuclear power for ships; 3) the completion of Euratom's reactor research project, carried out jointly with the French Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique (CEA); 4) the proposal to conclude agreements with companies building or operating nuclear-power stations where Community trainees could gain on-the-job experience in construction and operation; and 5) the study of methods for disposing of radioactive waste underground and in the sea.

The Council of Ministers of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) held its third meeting in Geneva from February 14 to 16, 1961, under the chairmanship of Mr. Maudling, President of the Board of Trade of the United Kingdom. The main topics of discussion were 1) the advancement of the timetable for the reduction and elimination of tariffs within EFTA, and 2) the proposed association of Finland with EFTA. The Ministerial Council decided to bring forward by six months to July 1, 1961, the date by which the next 10 percent reductions were to be made in the tariffs applied within EFTA. The Ministers stated in the final communiqué of the meeting that the Council should pursue at official level the examination of the possibility of advancing the timetable for reducing and eliminating the tariffs applied within EFTA. The basic objective was to ensure that by January 1, 1970, if not before, goods manufactured within the area would be traded among the seven as if no frontiers existed. The Council agreed that this examination should be carried out at the same time as the following studies previously planned for 1961 in accordance with other provisions of the EFTA convention: 1) dismantling quantitative restrictions; 2) abolishing subsidized agricultural exports; and 3) facilitating the expansion of trade in agricultural goods. The Ministers also reached agreement on the form of association to be offered to Finland. Under the formula decided upon, Finland would in no sense be a member of EFTA but would have an ultimately tariff-free market for her exports in the seven EFTA countries. A separate free trade area was to be formed between Finland on the one hand and the seven EFTA members on the other, and a special council was to be created for matters affecting Finland alone. Finland would not be treated as an EFTA member but would be allowed to retain its existing trade agreements with the Soviet Union without exposing EFTA members to an irresistible demand for the same benefits. On March 27, 1961, it was announced by the press that Finland had signed the agreement linking her with EFTA.

The Ministerial Council of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) held its eleventh annual ministerial review at NATO headquarters in Paris from December 16 to 18, 1960. The main topic of discussion at the meeting was the announcement by United States Secretary of State Christian Herter of what he reportedly termed a new concept for the operation of medium-range ballistic missiles. The United States plan included: 1) a proposal that NATO discuss a multilateral system for the political control of the weapons; 2) an offer to place five ballistic missile submarines armed with 80 Polaris missiles under the command of the Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR), by the end of 1963; and 3) a suggestion that the other members of the alliance contribute approximately 100 more medium-range ballistic missiles by purchasing them in the United States. The press reported that Lord Home, Foreign Secretary of the United Kingdom, welcomed the United States proposal and said that NATO should examine the possibility of a medium-range ballistic missile force under multilateral control, a suggestion in which M. Couve de Murville, the French Foreign Minister, concurred. The West German Defense Minister, Franz Joseph Strauss, told the Ministers, the press announced, that concrete decisions on the United States proposal should be taken in the near future, and that plans for NATO control of the Polaris missile force should be pushed through by military and political authorities early in the spring of 1961. The Council of Ministers decided to pass on to its Permanent Comand other related materials, according to the press.

An emergency session of the Council of the Organization of American States (OAS) was reportedly held on November 30, 1960, in response to a note sent to Dr. Savhez Cavito, chairman of the Council, by the government of Venezuela requesting the opportunity to inform the Council of new acts of aggression that the Dominican Republic was planning and had already begun launching against Venezuela. At the meeting Dr. Nelson Himiob, Venezuelan delegate to the Council, was said to have charged the Dominican Republic with placing airplanes and other war materials at the disposal of former Venezuelan military officers residing in the Dominican Republic. Dr. Himiob asked that the fivenation Inter-American Peace Committee be convoked immediately after the emergency session, with a view to initiating an investigation of the aggressive acts contemplated by the Dominican Republic. The Venezuelan representative was reported to have stated that unless the Peace Committee took action, his government would have to act unilaterally in legitimate self-defense. Dr. Himiob also told the Council that there had been considerable delay in fulfilling the mandate for action against the Dominican Republic agreed upon at the August meeting of the foreign ministers; he pointed out that this was the fifth time in two years that Venezuela had brought charges against the Dominican Republic. According to the press, however, the Venezuelan delegate did not provide any concrete evidence in support of his government's contentions, and Mr. Virgilio Diaz Ordonez, Dominican delegate to the Council, denied the Venezuelan allegations.

Following a three-hour special meeting of the Council of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) in Bangkok, Thailand, on December 12, 1960, a SEATO communique expressed the view, the press reported, that the shipment of heavy arms by the Soviet Union to the rebel forces in Laos would only prolong the crisis in that country. According to the press, however, the chairman of the Council had said that SEATO could not intervene, since all the parties involved in the fighting in Laos were Laotians and not the forces of a foreign nation.

A regular meeting of the Political Consultative Committee of the member states of the Warsaw Pact was held in Moscow on March 28 and 29, 1961, according to press reports. Heads of government and military and political leaders of the eight member states were present, although there was considerable comment in the press when Albania sent Deputy Premier Begir Balluku instead of General Enver Hoxha, First Secretary of the Albanian Communist Party. Communist China sent as an observer Liu Hsiao, Ambassador to Moscow. The Council on Mutual Economic Aid of the pact reportedly disclosed a new economic plan at the conference that called for the voluntary coordination of member nations' economic schemes and prospects for a twentyyear period through 1980. The project was to constitute a new form of international cooperation that would be the prototype for the economic relations of the future communist society. The Warsaw Pact nations also reportedly discussed military matters, including the situation in Germany.