Unintentional herbicide resistance gene stacking in canola may alter the sensitivity of volunteers to herbicides of alternative modes of action commonly used for their control. Greenhouse experiments were conducted to investigate the response of three single-herbicide–resistant (HR) cultivars (glyphosate, glufosinate, imidazolinone), one non-HR cultivar, and seven multiple (double or triple)–HR experimental lines to 2,4-D (amine and ester), MCPA ester, and metribuzin applied at the two- to three-leaf stage and of one non-HR and four HR cultivars (glyphosate, glufosinate, imidazolinone, bromoxynil) to 2,4-D amine applied at two growth stages (two- to three-leaf stage and five- to six-leaf stage). All canola cultivars or lines treated at the two- to three-leaf stage responded similarly to increasing doses of each of the three herbicides. At the five- to six-leaf stage, however, the bromoxynil HR cultivar was less sensitive to 2,4-D than the other cultivars. The results of this study suggest that canola with multiple-herbicide–resistance traits does not differ from cultivars that are non-HR or single HR in its sensitivity to herbicides commonly used to control volunteers. All volunteers, whether non-HR, single HR, or multiple HR, should be treated when plants are most sensitive to herbicides (two- to four-leaf stage) to reduce their interference against crops and their perpetuation of gene flow.

Canada thistle is a serious perennial weed found throughout the northern regions of the United States and Canada. The weevil, Ceutorhynchus litura (F.), was first released in Canada in 1965 as a potential biological control agent for Canada thistle; however, its impact as a control agent has been sporadic. The objective of this study was to characterize C. litura impacts on the carbohydrate profile in Canada thistle roots through the growing season and to evaluate the potential for this biological control agent in causing stress to Canada thistle. Field plots, infested with C. litura, were established and extensively sampled for C. litura infestations. By sampling C. litura–damaged and undamaged Canada thistle shoots–roots through the season, we were able to establish the profile of free sugars and fructans in the roots and compare these levels to the presence and extent of insect damage. Levels of all free sugars and fructans were consistently found to be depressed in roots from C. litura–damaged shoots early in the summer during and shortly after the larval feeding period. Ceutorhynchus litura feeding in Canada thistle shoots appears to disrupt the movement of photoassimilates from leaves to roots. Late-season levels of free sugars and fructans indicate that roots do recover from these depressed levels, and in several instances, significant overcompensation occurred in the damaged roots. Measurement of free sugars and fructans to identify sublethal impacts of control tactics may allow the strategic combining of complementary tactics to maximize the impact of stresses on Canada thistle.

The limited understanding of soil nitrogen (N) effects on crop yield loss to weeds prevents the refinement of integrated weed management to consider soil fertility. A 3-yr field experiment compared ammonium nitrate applications before corn emergence (PRE N) or in late June (POST N) on the growth of giant foxtail, velvetleaf, common waterhemp, and grain corn. The N responses were studied in corn population densities of 5.4 and 7.9 plants m−2 to understand how crop density might influence N effects on yield loss. In late June of each year, leaf areas were 25% (corn), 64% (velvetleaf), and 41% (giant foxtail) lower with POST N than with PRE N. Common waterhemp leaf area in late June was unaffected by N timing. Corn population density did not affect weed shoot dry weights evaluated in late June. Corn and velvetleaf heights in late July were up to 19 and 48% lower, respectively, with POST N compared with PRE N. Common waterhemp and giant foxtail heights in late July were unaffected by N timing. Corn yield was decreased 13 to 18% by giant foxtail with POST N compared with PRE N. Velvetleaf seed yield was lower, but giant foxtail seed yield was higher, with POST N than with PRE N. Velvetleaf and giant foxtail seed yields were 23 to 56% and 30 to 62% lower, respectively, with the high corn population density compared with the low population density. In competition between corn and common waterhemp, neither N timing nor corn population affected corn yield loss or common waterhemp seed production. N management may alter weed competitiveness and weed seed production in corn, but fertilization recommendations may vary with the weed species that are present.

Safeners are chemical agents that reduce the phytotoxicity of herbicides to crop plants by a physiological or molecular mechanism, without compromising weed control efficacy. Commercialized safeners are used for the protection of large-seeded grass crops, such as corn, grain sorghum, and wet-sown rice, against preplant-incorporated or preemergence-applied herbicides of the thiocarbamate and chloroacetanilide families. Safeners also have been developed to protect winter cereal crops such as wheat against postemergence applications of aryloxyphenoxypropionate and sulfonylurea herbicides. The use of safeners for the protection of corn and rice against sulfonylurea, imidazolinone, cyclohexanedione, isoxazole, and triketone herbicides also is well established. A safener-induced enhancement of herbicide detoxification in safened plants is widely accepted as the major mechanism involved in safener action. Safeners induce cofactors such as glutathione and herbicide-detoxifying enzymes such as glutathione S-transferases, cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, and glucosyl transferases. In addition, safeners enhance the vacuolar transport of glutathione or glucose conjugates of selected herbicides. The safener-mediated induction of herbicide-detoxifying enzymes appears to be part of a general stress response.

Field and laboratory studies were conducted to evaluate herbicide efficacy, absorption, and translocation of cloransulam within broadleaf weeds. Control of morningglory species and velvetleaf with cloransulam was dependent upon application rate and timing. A reduced rate of cloransulam (9 g ai ha−1) was as effective as the labeled rate (18 g ha−1), when applications were targeted to small to midsize morningglory and velvetleaf. Prickly sida, hemp sesbania, and sicklepod were suppressed by cloransulam. Contour maps predicted accurately weed control for all species except tall morningglory. Cloransulam absorption and translocation provided some information about tolerance mechanisms. Susceptible species, entireleaf morningglory and velvetleaf, both rapidly absorbed 14C-cloransulam. Absorption in the more tolerant velvetleaf was 20% lower than entireleaf morningglory at all harvest times. Absorption of 14C-cloransulam in prickly sida was only 26% 6 h after treatment, and absorption did not increase with time. Differences in cloransulam absorption and translocation partially explained differences in susceptibility among some weed species but not others.

Herbicides applied to container plants in nurseries are transported in runoff water to on- and off-site ponds and retention basins. This study was conducted to determine biotic and abiotic effects on isoxaben dissipation in model flow-through retention basins to maximize aqueous isoxaben degradation. Field studies were conducted in 1999 and 2000 to evaluate the effects of gravel and pine bark amendments and water retention times on isoxaben persistence in holding basins. In 1999, total isoxaben discharge into flow-through gravel-filled basins was greater than isoxaben losses from gravel and nongravel basins in which water was retained. Photodegradation appeared to be greater in basins without gravel, indicating that gravel protected isoxaben from photolysis. Further studies determined the effect of water retention time and the presence of aged pine bark amendment on isoxaben discharge from basins. Isoxaben discharge level was reduced when water retention time was increased from 3 to 5 d. In the 3-d retention time treatment, added pine bark reduced peak isoxaben discharge by 45% and total isoxaben by 53% at 14 d after treatment. In treatments containing pine bark within the retention basins, isoxaben was released over a longer period of time. No differences were observed in 5-d water retention time treatments with and without pine bark. Analysis of gravel from isoxaben-treated retention basins indicated the presence of several genera of bacteria including Pseudomonas, Arthrobacter, and Cellulomonas. Some isolates of Pseudomonas, Rahnella, Methobacterium, and Paenibacillus from the basins grew on M9 medium with isoxaben as the sole carbon and energy source, indicating their ability to metabolize isoxaben. Results indicate that retention basins are helpful in reducing isoxaben levels before release or reuse of runoff water from a container nursery, and that retention time of runoff water in basins is the most important factor in reducing isoxaben discharge.

Herbicide resistance is the heritable ability of a weed biotype or population to survive a herbicide application that would effectively kill a susceptible population of the weed. In the U.K. the most widespread and financially important herbicide-resistant weed is blackgrass. Investigations to elucidate the molecular mechanisms conferring herbicide resistance to blackgrass populations have been ongoing for two decades. Although the identification of target site–resistant populations has proved to be relatively straightforward (using, for example, target site assays in vitro), the study and understanding of resistance mechanisms involved in enhanced metabolism has proven to be more problematic. Research has focused on the cytochrome P450 monooxygenase and glutathione S-transferase (GST) enzyme families, both of which have been shown to be important in herbicide metabolism in many weed and crop species. GST activity and abundance are greater in a selection of herbicide-resistant blackgrass biotypes, and herbicide treatment of field populations of blackgrass results in the survival of the proportion of population possessing the greatest GST activity and abundance. In addition, GST activity in the field increases between winter and spring, and this coincides with reduced efficacy of important blackgrass herbicides. GST activities within field populations of blackgrass are highly varied, and this plasticity is discussed in relation to the development of resistant populations in field situations. This article describes research results in blackgrass and compares them with GST studies in other weed species as well as with other mechanisms for enhanced metabolism-based resistance.

The need for coordinated regional and global electronic databases to assist prevention, early detection, rapid response, and control of biological invasions is well accepted. The Pacific Basin Information Node (PBIN), a node of the National Biological Information Infrastructure, has been increasingly engaged in the invasive species enterprise since its establishment in 2001. Since this time, PBIN has sought to support frontline efforts at combating invasions, through working with stakeholders in conservation, agriculture, forestry, health, and commerce to support joint information needs. Although initial emphasis has been on Hawaii, cooperative work with other Pacific islands and countries of the Pacific Rim is already underway and planned.

Vegetative filter strips (VFS) potentially reduce herbicide transport from agricultural fields by increasing herbicide mass infiltrated (M inf) and herbicide mass adsorbed (M as) compared with bare field soil. However, there are conflicting reports in the literature concerning the contribution of Mas to herbicide trapping efficiency (TE). Moreover, no study has evaluated TE among metolachlor and metolachlor metabolites in a VFS. This experiment was conducted to compare TE, M inf, and M as among metolachlor, metolachlor oxanilic acid (OA), and metolachlor ethanesulfonic acid (ESA) in buffalograss filter strips. Runoff was applied as a point source upslope of a 1- × 3-m microwatershed at a rate of 750 L h−1. The point source was fortified with metolachlor, metolachlor OA, and metolachlor ESA, each at 0.12 μg ml−1. After moving through the plot, water samples were collected at 5-min intervals and stored at 5 C until analysis. Water samples were extracted using solid-phase extraction and analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography–photodiode array detection. TE was significantly greater for metolachlor (25.3%) as compared with the OA (15.5%) and ESA metabolites (14.2%). The average M inf was 8.5% and was not significantly different among compounds. Significantly more metolachlor (17.3%) was retained as Mas compared with either metolachlor OA (7.0%) or metolachlor ESA (5.5%). Moreover, M as accounted for 68 and 42% of the total TE for metolachlor and metolachlor metabolites, respectively. These results demonstrate that adsorption to the VFS grass, grass thatch, or soil surface (or all) is an important retention mechanism for metolachlor and metolachlor metabolites, especially under saturated conditions. Moreover, the Mas data indicate that metolachlor is preferentially retained by the VFS grass, grass thatch, or soil surface (or all) compared with the OA and ESA metabolites. Greater metolachlor retention in VFS compared with the OA and ESA metabolites may partially explain why metolachlor metabolites are frequently measured at higher concentrations than metolachlor is in surface water.

Flucarbazone-sodium, a new herbicide, exhibits high bioactivity at low concentrations. To elucidate potential carryover and crop injury, the behavior of flucarbazone in six Western Canadian soils was studied in the laboratory. A sensitive bioassay was developed for the detection of flucarbazone. Of five crops tested, oriental mustard showed the highest degree of root and shoot inhibition from the presence of flucarbazone in soil. Flucarbazone concentrations as low as 1 μg kg−1 were detected by the mustard root inhibition method. This bioassay was used to examine phytotoxicity and persistence of flucarbazone. Phytotoxicity was related to soil organic carbon content. Concentrations corresponding to 50% inhibition (I 50 values) were estimated after fitting the data to a log-logistic model. I 50 estimates ranged from 6.0 to 27.5 μg kg−1 for soils containing 1.1 to 4.3% organic carbon, respectively, and were correlated (R = 0.979) with percent organic carbon in the investigated soils. Persistence of flucarbazone was examined in soils incubated at 25 C and moisture content of 85% field capacity (FC). Flucarbazone dissipation followed first-order kinetics in one soil, but a two-compartment model provided the best fit for dissipation in the other soils. Half-lives (t0.5), calculated from dissipation curves in each soil, ranged from 6 to 110 d. Half-lives were correlated (R = 0.776) with soil organic carbon. Flucarbazone dissipation was more rapid in soils containing less organic carbon. Flucarbazone was more persistent in drier soil; t0.5 was 11 d in soil at 85% FC and was 25 d in soil at 50% FC. Soil characteristics and environmental conditions will affect the degree of plant injury to sensitive crops the year after flucarbazone application.

Weed distribution maps can be developed from remotely sensed reflectance data if collected at appropriate times during the growing season. The research objectives were to determine if and when reflectance could be used to distinguish between weed-free and weed-infested (mixed species) areas in soybean and to determine the most useful wavebands to separate crop, weed, and soil reflectance differences. Treatments included no vegetation (bare soil), weed-free soybean, and weed-infested soybean and, in 1 yr, 80% corn residue cover. Reflectance was measured at several sampling times from May through September in 2001 and 2002 using a handheld multispectral radiometer equipped with band-limited optical interference filters (460 to 1,650 nm). The spatial resolution was 0.8 m2. The reflectance in the visible spectral range (460 to 700 nm) generally was similar among treatments. In the near-infrared (NIR) range (> 700 to 1,650 nm), differences among treatments were observed from soybean growth stage V-3 (about 4 wk after planting) until mid-July to early August depending on crop vigor and canopy closure (76-cm row spacing in 2001 and 19-cm row spacing in 2002). Reflectance rankings in the NIR range when treatments could be differentiated were consistent between years and, from lowest to highest reflectance, were soil < weed-free < weed-infested areas. Increased reflectance from weed-infested areas was most likely due to increased biomass and canopy cover. Residue masked differences between weed-free and weed-infested areas during the early stages of growth due to high reflectance from the residue and reduced weed numbers in these areas. These results suggest that NIR spectral reflectance collected before canopy closure can be used to distinguish weed-infested from weed-free areas.

Propanil is an acylanilide herbicide introduced in the early 1960s to control dicotyledonous weeds and grasses, including Echinochloa species in cultivated rice. Since then, propanil has been used extensively in rice production in the United States and in several other countries. Propanil is an inhibitor of photosystem II, but rice is tolerant to propanil because of the presence of a high level of aryl acylamidase that catalytically degrades the compound to nonphytotoxic products, i.e., 3,4-dichloroaniline and propionic acid. About 10 yr ago, biotypes of barnyardgrass and junglerice were discovered to be resistant to propanil. The resistance mechanism of these two biotypes has been shown to be elevated levels of aryl acylamidase activity. Various strategies to combat propanil resistance and to more fully understand the biochemistry involved in this resistance have been investigated. These include studies on the interactions of herbicides and other chemicals with propanil, rotation of rice with other crops (consequently the use of other herbicide modes of action), and use of alternative herbicides in rice. Certain compounds, including some organophosphate insecticides, are potent inhibitors of aryl acylamidase, which can act as synergists with propanil to increase phytotoxicity. Another compound that lacks insecticidal or herbicidal activity, PPG-124, has been commercialized as a herbicide synergist for propanil. These chemical and biochemical interactions and other factors involved in propanil-resistant Echinochloa weeds are presented and discussed.

Spotted knapweed is an invasive mycorrhizal weed prevalent in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Little is known about the effects of spotted knapweed or its management methods on soil quality and soil structure. This study compared soils from spotted knapweed–infested areas with areas where spotted knapweed is being managed using several herbicides and mechanical treatments. We measured concentrations of glomalin, a glycoprotein produced by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), that is correlated with soil aggregate stability, AMF hyphal length, and percent water-stable aggregates (WSA) in soils from managed and unmanaged areas. Areas with high knapweed density (unmanaged areas) generally had lower glomalin concentrations and AMF hyphal lengths compared with areas receiving chemical and combined mechanical–chemical management treatments. Total glomalin was significantly negatively correlated with percent knapweed cover. However, WSA was high (70 to 80%) in soils from all management treatments and was not affected by knapweed cover. Our results suggest that spotted knapweed does not have negative effects on soil quality from our study site, likely because of the high aggregate stability of the soils in the area. However, Centaurea maculosa may have negative effects on soil quality in soils with lower aggregate stability.

The need for long-term agricultural research is generally recognized. However, most long-term experiments have been designed to evaluate effects of fertility and crop rotation. Much of the current research in weed biology and weed management is conducted on a short-term basis that does not address adequately the long-term aspects of weed population ecology. In recent decades, a number of long-term experiments have been initiated to investigate the effects of both agronomic and weed management practices on weed communities. Knowledge of the existence of these experiments and the information being obtained from them are not always readily available. The Symposium held at the 2002 WSSA annual meeting in Reno, Nevada, had several goals: (1) to provide WSSA members, and other researchers, with information about long-term experiments that are currently ongoing, or recently terminated, that are investigating weed ecology and weed management; (2) to provide an exchange of ideas between researchers involved in long-term weed ecology research; (3) to provide examples of protocols and problems associated with conducting long-term weed ecology research; (4) to evaluate the scientific principles that have been, or may be, added to the discipline of weed science; and (5) to provide funding agencies with examples of how long-term weed management experiments clarify impacts of weeds in relation to sustainable agriculture.

The possibility of using the fungus Bipolaris sacchari as a bioherbicide to suppress cogongrass and to allow the establishment of bahiagrass in cogongrass–bahiagrass mixed plantings was investigated under greenhouse conditions. The bioherbicide was prepared by mixing B. sacchari spore suspension containing 105 spores ml−1 with an oil emulsion composed of 16% horticultural oil plus 10% light mineral oil and 74% sterile water. The bioherbicide caused severe foliar blight in cogongrass and slight phytotoxic damage on bahiagrass. In the first experiment, the bioherbicide reduced cogongrass biomass without affecting bahiagrass biomass. In the second experiment, the bioherbicide caused a 64% reduction in fresh weight, a 74% reduction in the number of rhizomes, and a 47% reduction in the height of cogongrass. The latter experiment also showed an increase in bahiagrass fresh weight in the presence of cogongrass when the bioherbicide was applied. This study indicates the potential of combining bioherbicide application with competition from a desirable grass species as a strategy for the integrated management of cogongrass.

The Broadbalk experiment was started in 1843 to investigate the relative importance of different plant nutrients (N, P, K, Na, Mg) on grain yield of winter wheat. Weeds were controlled initially by hand hoeing and fallowing, but since 1964, herbicides have been applied to the whole experiment with the exception of the 18 plots on Section 8. Approximately 130 weed species have been recorded on Broadbalk and about 30 of these are currently recorded annually on Section 8. Detailed weed surveys, conducted from 1930 to 1979, provide a unique 50-yr record, but the relatively small number of frequency categories used (six) poses a limitation on the interpretation of these data for ecological studies. Weed surveys were restarted in 1991 on Section 8. The current assessment method records the presence of individual weed species in 25 random 0.1-m2 quadrats per plot, which is more appropriate for detecting long-term trends in weed frequencies and population differences between plots. A principal components analysis of the 1991–2002 survey data for 15 species showed clearly the influence of inorganic N fertilizer levels on the frequency of individual species. The frequency of one species (common chickweed) was greatly favored by increasing amounts of nitrogen fertilizer from 0 to 288 kg N ha−1, others were strongly disadvantaged (e.g., black medic and field horsetail), some were slightly disadvantaged (e.g., common vetch and parsley-piert), and some showed little response to differing N rates (e.g., blackgrass and corn poppy). Other weed investigations include studies on the effects of fallowing on the weed seed bank, seed dormancy and persistence, agroecology, and population dynamics of individual weed species. Recently, molecular approaches have been used to study the genetic diversity of weeds found on Section 8, which is one of the few arable sites in the country where herbicides have never been applied. This site also provides an invaluable reserve for seven nationally rare or uncommon species. Broadbalk continues to act as a valuable resource for weed investigations 160 yr after it was established.

Field research was conducted in 1999 and 2000 to determine the effect of reduced glyphosate rates on growth and yield of nonglyphosate-resistant cotton. Rates of 9, 18, 35, 70, 140, and 280 g ha−1, representing 0.008, 0.016, 0.031 0.063, 0.125, and 0.25, respectively, of the maximum use rate per application (1,120 g ha−1), were applied to cotton at the two-, five-, or nine-node growth stage. On the basis of visual injury estimates, cotton was more tolerant to glyphosate at the nine-node than at earlier growth stages. Plant dry weight was reduced with 70 g ha−1 of glyphosate or higher, when applied at the two- and five-node growth stages in two of three experiments. Dry weight was not affected by glyphosate at the nine-node stage. Plant height also was unaffected by glyphosate rates below 70 g ha−1, but height reduction was noted for all growth stages by experiment combinations, with the exception of the nine-node application for both experiments in 2000, with herbicide rates of 70 g ha−1 or higher. Cotton maturity delay, as noted by an increase in node above white flower number, was observed only at the highest glyphosate rate applied to two- and five-node cotton in one of three experiments. Percent open boll data analysis indicated a decreased opportunity of observing an open boll with increasing glyphosate rate, and this effect was greater at the five-node compared with the two- and nine-node stages in two of three experiments. Seedcotton yield after all glyphosate applications was equivalent to that for the nontreated control.

Production systems based on reduced-tillage practices account for over 60% of the cropped land on the Canadian Prairies. Concerns have been expressed regarding potential shifts in weed communities as a result of changing tillage practices. Study objectives were to (1) determine the feasibility of combining and analyzing weed abundance data from 10 medium- to long-term studies on the Canadian Prairies that compared conventional-, reduced-, and zero-tillage systems, (2) identify species that are associated with specific tillage systems, and (3) place species into plant response groups according to the similarity of their tillage system response. Conventional-tillage systems were defined as including both a fall and spring sweep-plow operation before seeding spring crops, whereas reduced tillage consisted of only one sweep-plow operation shortly before seeding. Crops within zero-tillage systems were planted directly into the previous crop's stubble. The association between weed species and tillage systems was investigated using indicator species analysis. Species were assigned to tillage response groups on the basis of the results of the analysis and the expertise of the project scientists. Perennial species such as Canada thistle and perennial sowthistle were associated with reduced- and zero-tillage systems, but annual species were associated with a range of tillage systems. Field pennycress was placed in the conventional-tillage response group, Russian thistle in the zero-tillage group, and wild buckwheat and common lambsquarters were equally abundant in all tillage systems. The goal of classifying weed species based on common functional traits in relation to responses to tillage systems was not realized, in part, because the required information on species biology and ecology was either unavailable or not applicable to local conditions.