Developing countries have many claims on their limited resources and astronomy can expect only a small share of a small “pie”. A useful rule of thumb is that a country’s expenditure on astronomy is likely to be of the same order of magnitude as its per capita Gross National Product multiplied by the number of professional astronomers in the country. In the light of this, we consider how governments of developing countries can help their astronomers, how we can help them and how they can help themselves.

I discuss the critical conditions for undertaking a successful research program in a developing country. There are many important factors, all or most of which have to be satisfied: funding, library holdings, computing access, Internet access (e-mail, WWW, ftp, telnet), collaboration with astronomers in developed countries, provision of proper offices for staff, supply of graduate students, access to travel for conferences, ability to publish in international journals, critical mass of researchers, access to a telescope (for observational astronomers), support from and interaction with national electronics, optics and precision engineering industries, a scientific culture backed by a national scientific academy, and lack of inter-institutional rivalry. I make a list of a total of 15 key factors and rank them in order of importance, and discuss the use of an astronomical research index (ARI) suitable for measuring the research potential of a given country or institution.

I also discuss whether astronomers in developing countries in principle fare better in a university or in the environment of a government national observatory or research institution, and topics such as the effect of the cost of page charges and journal subscriptions on developing countries. Finally I present some statistics on astronomy in developing countries and relate the numbers of astronomers to the size of the economy and population in each country.

Astronomy can help, directly or indirectly, in the acquisition and creation of new technologies, in attracting young people to scientific careers, in providing a scientific education to the general public and in fostering international collaborations. These and other benefits of professional astronomy are critically reviewed in the context of countries which are facing urgent, basic needs. Several criteria are suggested for the best implementation of astronomy in developing countries and the most efficient collaboration with industrialized countries.

There are many interlocking factors determining the introduction of astronomy education in Zambia. The process of infusing this new subject into an education system so centralised as that of Zambia is extremely complex. At school level the process is more complex than at university level, as all syllabuses are developed by a central body, Curriculum Development Centre (CDC) whose priorities are determined by perceived social and economic needs of the country. The prevailing notion in Zambia is that astronomy has no direct bearing on future employment needs. It is therefore not surprising that astronomy is at the bottom of the priority list among school subjects. The recent upsurge of interest in astronomy at the University of Zambia opens up the necessary background for developing astronomy in both school and university curricula. The University has recently formed the Astronomical Society and the Working Group on Space Science in Zambia. Coupled to this are exchange visits and collaborative work between the Physics Department of the University of Zambia and the South-African Astronomical Observatory. In this paper we present a review of the current activities in space science in Zambia and how they relate to the development of astronomy education.

Vietnam was scientifically completely isolated for almost 30 years. With French help, several lecture courses have introduced modern astrophysics to Vietnamese physicists, and four students are studying abroad. The IAU program “Teaching for Astronomy Development” (TAD) has concentrated on modernizing the on-going astronomy course for students in the third year of the pedagogical universities. Three one-to-two week “Teachers’ Workshops” have served to introduce selected up-to-date astronomical topics and a few modern teaching methods. The TAD program has also provided appropriate journals, books, a PC and educational software. A new text, Astrophysics, in Vietnamese and English on facing pages and with color pictures – apparently a first for any textbook in Vietnam – will first be used starting in September 2000.

Future additional activities: collaboration to plan a new astronomy course in the twelfth grade of the natural science branch of the secondary schools; collaboration so that the 41-cm telescope and astronomers in Hanoi can produce some simple quality science; helping the only planetarium in Vietnam to acquire a wider range of offerings; helping to create a set of B.Sc.-level astrophysics courses for three universities; and supporting the Vietnamese Astronomical Society in effective public outreach.

Aware of the possibility that astronomy in the Philippines will remain as lethargic as it has been for a hundred years if drastic changes are not made, various revitalizing activities were planned in 1997 and some have been implemented. These activities were divided into five categories and included the promotion of astronomy throughout the country and the attendance of some personnel of the Atmospheric, Geophysical and Space-Sciences Branch at various international meetings. Project proposals were also prepared and submitted to various local and foreign institutions in order to acquire astronomical equipment. The Philippines also applied for, and received, associate mebership of the International Astronomical Union.

From my experience in Morocco, I discuss the difficulties one can face while trying to set up projects in a country where astronomy is a forgotten science: everything has to be built from scratch and, at the same time, one is required to keep up the pace at the international level. But, on the other side, it is quite a relief to see the strong demand from students and the public. In these circumstances even professional astronomy cannot survive without feedback from the public and long-term investment in education at all levels.

Encouraging IAU-ISYA schools were held in Argentina (1974) and Brazil (1977 and 1995). Contacts with IAU Commission 46 were soon established and the author became the responsible person for setting up a supporting framework for astronomy in Paraguay. A proposal for an IAU-VLP program was made and the program began in 1988, running until 1994. The IAU Traveling Telescope and another telescope were borrowed for hands-on astronomy. Three students went to the Brazil ISYA in 1995 and two others began to work as astronomers abroad. Others became high-school and university instructors. A small library was opened, thanks to donations from IAU members. The need to find jobs for these young astronomers led to the further development of an Astronomy Center around the National Astronomical Observatroy.

The Master’s Program in Astronomy and Astrophysics for Central America arises as part of the project of the National Autonomous University of Honduras to contribute to the establishment of “Astronomy and Astrophysics” as an academic field within the region (Pineda de Carias 1993). In 1997, the same year that the Central American Suyapa Astronomical Observatory (CASAO) was officially inaugurated (within the frame of the VII UN/ESA Workshop on Basic Space Science), a degree course in astronomy and astrophysics at graduate level was approved. In 1998 the program was formally opened for Central American graduate students in physics, mathematics or engineering. In the year 2000, the first group of students is expected to finish their courses. In this document we present the main features of the Master’s Program: the syllabus, resources, organization. A discussion of the results achieved and of future tendencies is also included, together with some recommendations about how the international community may contribute to the enhancement of this type of effort, and on how this model may be useful for developing countries.

In China, more than twenty universities have astronomy education and research work. In four key universities, a complete series of educational programs of undergraduate, master’s, doctoral and postdoctoral levels has been formed. After four-year study at the undergraduate stage, students can be enrolled in master degree specialties. Three years later, some of them begin their three-year Ph.D. education. Only a few students enter into post-doctoral programs. Master’s and doctoral education systems are also established in the Chinese Academy of Sciences. In this paper, we give a description of the astronomy education of universities in China. After introducing the overall situation, we describe teaching materials, graduate-degree courses and facilities. We also discuss some problems and prospects for the new century.

Amateur astronomers, and students, can contribute to astronomical research by measuring the brightness of variable stars. Hands-On Astrophysics (HOA) is a project which uses the unique methods and the International Database of the American Association of Variable Star Observers (AAVSO) to develop and integrate a wide range of science, mathematical and computer skills, through the measurement and analysis of variable stars. It is very flexible and can be used at many levels, in many contexts — for classroom use from high school to university level, or for individual projects. In this paper we describe HOA, and how it can be used to promote international astronomy education and development, through research-based science education.

The Working Group of the European Association for Astronomy Education responsible for Teacher Training organises an annual Summer School for teachers under expert guidance. For a week the teachers participating can exchange experiences, increase their knowledge and discuss different ideas and perspectives.

In general, the instructors are professional astronomers, professors and teachers from different countries. The papers presented offer very practical activities, paying special attention to didactic aspects, and take the form of general lectures to all 40 participants and workshops to reduced groups of 20 participants. There are also day and night observations, without expensive equipment or complicated procedures, that are easy to set up and based on topics that it is possible to use in the classroom.

The Summer Schools promote a scientific astronomical education at all levels of astronomy teaching, reinforce the link between professional astronomers and teachers with experience of teaching astronomy, allow debates among the participants on their pedagogical activities already carried out in their own classroom and help them to organise activities outside it.

Astronomy teachers need special training, access to specific research, to new educational materials and methods and the opportunity to exchange experiences. All these things are provided by the Summer School.

Total solar eclipses will cross southern Africa on June 21, 2001, and on December 4, 2002. Most of Africa will see partial phases. The total phase of the 2001 eclipse will be visible from parts of Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Madagascar. The total phase of the 2002 eclipse will be visible from parts of Angola, Botswana, Zimbabwe, South Africa and Mozambique. Public education must be undertaken to tell the people how to look at the eclipse safely. We can take advantage of having the attention of the people and of news media to teach about not only eclipses but also the rest of astronomy. I am Chair of a “Public Education at Eclipses” subcommission of IAU Commission 46 on the Teaching of Astronomy, and we are able to advise educators and others about materials, procedures and information releases.

The full potential of television for education has not been used in developing nations. It is relatively inexpensive to produce astronomy programs that can be broadcast taking advantage of satellite transmissions.

We suggest that these programs should have the following elements in order to be efficient:

1. 1 Be in the local language.

2. 2 Be short enough so that the teacher has a chance to comment on them during a one-hour lecture.

3. 3 Show experiments specially if they are meant for schools that do not have laboratory facilities.

4. 4 Be produced for several educational levels, including programs aimed for teacher training.

Inexpensive books should be edited in the local language in order to serve as an educational complement to the television series.

Two seemingly incongruous components have come together about every two years: the serene terraces of the Pope’s summer residence at Castel Gandolfo, and the noisy exuberance of 25 beginning-level graduate students. Add in a small faculty of first-rate professors and a resourceful local support team, and one has the ingredients for the month-long Vatican Observatory Summer Schools. The eighth School takes place in the summer of 2001, and its goals are the same as when the series started in 1986: to encourage and motivate a mix of young people from industrialized and developing countries who are at critical moments of their research careers, and to make a small, but significant contribution to the progress of developing countries by exposing some of their most talented young citizens to people involved in high quality research in astrophysics. This account outlines the nature of the Schools, their follow-up, and something of how the spirit of sharing of personal and institutional resources is achieved.

A brief review of the issues affecting the current status of science education in general, and astronomy education in particular, is given. The paper looks at the present situation at primary, secondary and tertiary levels. South Africa has unique educational problems and the initiatives by local observatories and universities at school level are described. The problems encountered by the South African Astronomical Observatory (SAAO) Science Education Initiative (SEI) are typical, as is the SEI approach to addressing some of these. The experience of the SEI is described, as are some of the resources developed by them for primary and secondary schools. Finally a brief look is taken at future developments, in particular, ways in which the Southern African Large Telescope (SALT) can contribute to astronomy and science education.

Distance education and self-study are defined and described and their possible application to developing countries is discussed.

Any worthwhile tertiary-level course of study should, as its highest priority, reflect the discipline it represents as it is contemporaneously practiced. Were it not to do so, students would be intellectually underprovided. This paper sets out general principles which a first degree-level course in astronomy should aim to provide for its students. No specific syllabi will be attempted but, rather, the paper will outline ranges of topics and their level of treatment. While all students taking such courses should have as professional experience as possible, it must be recognised that most students taking tertiary-level astronomy courses may not become professional astronomers and that such courses will necessarily have to have flexibility to meet local circumstances.