The conditions (implicit or explicit) under which exposure to L2 input takes place and the level of awareness raised while processing input may be strongly related to the learning process. This study investigates how intake was affected both by awareness and by the conditions under which a problem-solving task was performed. Spanish conditional sentences were presented to learners through five different degrees of explicitness, which were the result of combining the factors [±formal instruction] and [±directions to search for rules]. Intake was measured through a multiple-choice recognition test administered immediately after the experimental task. Level of awareness was assessed by means of think-aloud protocols collected during input processing. Results indicate that (a) the degrees of explicitness had a differential effect on intake, (b) the higher the level of awareness demonstrated, the stronger the effect on intake, and (c) the conditions under which the task was administered influenced the way information was processed.

Three experiments investigated the relationship between memory for input and inductive learning of morphological rules relating to functional categories in a semiartificial form of Italian. A verbatim memory task was used as both the vehicle for presenting sentences and as a continuous measure of memory performance. Experiments 2 and 3 introduced increasingly explicit manipulations of attention to form compared to Experiment 1. In all experiments there were strong relationships between individual differences in memory for input as measured early in the experiment and eventual learning outcomes, and in Experiments 2 and 3 learning form-form (but not form-function) rules was related to vocabulary learning efficiency (taken as a measure of phonological long-term memory ability). These relationships along with the lack of an effect of feedback in Experiment 3 suggest that subjects tended to adopt a data-driven, as opposed to conceptually driven, mode of learning. However, the fact that the introduction of highlighting and vocabulary pretraining in Experiment 2 had a large impact on learning without improving early memory is taken to suggest that knowledge of distributional rules does not simply emerge out of memory encodings of the relevant forms but depends upon the appropriate allocation of attention over relationships between input elements at the time of encoding.

This article surveys the development of second language acquisition research in the area of tense and aspect. Research in the area has grown from the incidental investigation of tense-aspect morphology as part of the morpheme-order studies to investigations of the construction of interlanguage temporal semantics. Going beyond verbal morphology, many studies investigate a full range of temporal expression, including the use of pragmatic and lexical means. Much recent research also draws on theories of inherent, or lexical, aspect. An emphasis on the relation of form and meaning characterizes both the form-oriented approach and the semantic-oriented approach, the competing research paradigms that currently guide our work. The increase in scholarly activity in this domain of second language acquisition, as reflected not only in the number of studies undertaken but in the number of target languages investigated, bodes well for the understanding of temporality in second language.

In the 12 years since Studies in Second Language Acquisition published its first thematic collection on L2 lexical issues, “The use and acquisition of the second language lexicon,” edited by S. Gass (1987), the centrality of lexical development in second language acquisition has received ever increasing recognition from researchers (see, for example, volumes by Arnaud & Béjoint, 1992; Coady & Huckin, 1997; Haastrup, 1991; Haastrup & Viberg, 1998; Harley, 1995, 1996; Hatch & Brown, 1995; Huckin, Haynes, & Coady, 1993; Meara, 1992; Nation, 1990; Schmitt & McCarthy, 1997; Schreuder & Weltens, 1993; Tréville, 1993; Tréville & Duquette, 1996). The 1987 collection was a leading foray into new territory, following a period of relative neglect of the lexicon in SLA. The issues taken up by its authors were quite diverse, ranging from the organization and components of the L2 lexicon, to aspects of acquisition such as cross-linguistic influence, restructuring, and rate, to L2 lexical-use issues such as retrieval and access. Since that time, a large body of L2 research and theory has developed around these and other topics, and it has become possible to deal comprehensively with single core issues in L2 lexical acquisition from multiple perspectives. The current collection is one such attempt, offering a set of related papers on the topic of incidental L2 vocabulary acquisition. Unlike the 1987 collection, which argued for recognition of the importance of the lexicon in a field dominantly concerned with the acquisition of syntax, the authors of the present collection assume the central importance of lexical acquisition.

This paper has two main objectives: (a) to put the vast body of research on Swedish as a second language (SSL) into one coherent framework; and (b) to test the predictions deriving from processability theory (Pienemann, 1998a, 1998b) for Swedish against this empirical database. We will survey the 14 most prominent research projects on SSL covering wide areas of syntax and morphology in longitudinal and cross-sectional studies. This survey is the first to be carried out for Swedish, and it will bring the body of two decades of research into one unified framework. We proceed in the following steps: First, a brief summary of processability theory is given. Then the theory is used to generate a unifying framework for the development of the specific L2 grammatical system (Swedish). Finally, the new framework is tested in the above-mentioned empirical studies.

It is widely agreed that much second language vocabulary learning occurs incidentally while the learner is engaged in extensive reading. After a decade of intensive research, however, the incidental learning of vocabulary is still not fully understood, and many questions remain unsettled. Key unresolved issues include the actual mechanism of incidental acquisition, the type and size of vocabulary needed for accurate guessing, the degree of exposure to a word needed for successful acquisition, the efficacy of different word-guessing strategies, the value of teaching explicit guessing strategies, the influence of different kinds of reading texts, the effects of input modification, and, more generally, the problems with incidental learning. This article briefly surveys the empirical research that has been done on these issues in recent years.

This paper explores the relationship between formulaic language and creative construction in SLA by examining the production of interrogatives in an extensive naturalistic corpus of L2 French produced by early classroom learners. The paper first analyzes the production and breakdown of such formulaic language over time, before exploring the development of more creative structures. The interaction between the two processes “rote learning of formulas and creative construction” is then investigated. This interaction is shown to be a dynamic two-way process, with learners being driven forward in the development of their L2 system by their attempts to resolve the tension between structurally complex but communicatively rich formulas on the one hand, and structurally simple but communicatively inadequate creative structures on the other hand.

This study examines the relationship between different types of conversational interaction and SLA. Long's (1996) updated version of the interactionist hypothesis claims that implicit negative feedback, which can be obtained through negotiated interaction, facilitates SLA. Similar claims for the benefits of negotiation have been made by Pica (1994) and Gass (1997). Some support for the interaction hypothesis has been provided by studies that have explored the effects of interaction on production (Gass & Varonis, 1994), on lexical acquisition (Ellis, Tanaka, & Yamazaki, 1994), on the short-term outcomes of pushed output (see Swain, 1995), and for specific interactional features such as recasts (Long, Inagaki, & Ortega, 1998; Mackey & Philp, 1998). However, other studies have not found effects for interaction on grammatical development (Loschky, 1994). The central question addressed by the current study was: Can conversational interaction facilitate second language development? The study employed a pretest-posttest design. Adult ESL learners (N = 34) of varying L1 backgrounds were divided into four experimental groups and one control group. They took part in task-based interaction. Research questions focused on the developmental outcomes of taking part in various types of interaction. Active participation in interaction and the developmental level of the learner were considered. Results of this study support claims concerning a link between interaction and grammatical development and highlight the importance of active participation in the interaction.

This study addresses one of the functions of output proposed by Swain (1993, 1995, 1998). In particular, the activity of producing the target language may, under certain circumstances, prompt L2 learners to recognize some of their linguistic problems and bring to their attention something they need to discover about their L2. Two research questions were posed: (a) Does output promote noticing of linguistic form? and (b) Does output result in improved performance on the target form? In treatment phase 1, participants reconstructed a short passage after being exposed to it, followed by a second exposure to the same input material and a second reconstruction opportunity. In phase 2, participants wrote on given topics, followed by the presentation of a model written by a native speaker. Participants wrote a second time on the same topic. To test the noticing function of output, participants underlined parts of the sentences they thought were “particularly necessary” for subsequent (re)production. The control group was exposed to the same input materials but was not required to produce any output. Although phase 1 tasks resulted in noticing and immediate incorporation of the target form, the posttest performance failed to reveal their effects. In contrast, phase 2 tasks resulted in improvement on posttest 2. The results are discussed in terms of the efficacy of output in promoting noticing and learning and the conditions that may be required for output to be useful for SLA.

Within both first and second language acquisition research, a critical or sensitive period for complete attainment has largely been substantiated in phonological studies, although it is questionable whether age should be examined in isolation from sociopsychological influences and the extent of exposure to the second language. This study sets out to challenge the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) by examining phonological performance among highly motivated subjects who use German daily as graduate student instructors and who have been immersed in the language through in-country residence, augmented by years of instruction in both language- and content-based courses. The methodology developed seeks to expand the realm of factors that are potentially conflated with age, such as instruction, motivation, suprasegmental training, and self-perception of productive accuracy, and other factors that have not been addressed in previous studies on ultimate attainment. Production tasks target sounds difficult for nonnative speakers (NNSs) according to contrastive analysis, and task types range in complexity from isolated words to sentences, paragraphs, and free speech. A mean rating was computed for each speaker, including native speaker controls, according to native speaker judgments. When averaged across all tasks, nonnative speaker performance did not overlap with native performance. However, several variables correlated significantly with outcome, including suprasegmental training, which indicated performance closer to native level.

The present study is a follow-up to a classroom experiment with university ESL students that demonstrated incidental acquisition of new lexical knowledge through the reading of thematically related texts. Introspective data from similar students using the same materials are analyzed in this study to explore how vocabulary knowledge may be acquired as a by-product of reading for comprehension. The researchers sought to identify the strategies and the kinds of knowledge and information learners used when dealing with new L2 words they encountered while reading. Learners tended to ignore a large proportion of the words. For those words they attended to, inferencing was the main strategy employed. A taxonomy of the knowledge sources they used in inferring word meanings from various textual and other cues was developed, which provided a framework for describing learners' inferencing behavior. Findings are interpreted in terms of existing research and theory on incidental vocabulary acquisition within an input-processing framework. Pedagogical implications are drawn.

Research has been investigating the role of reading, as one source of input, in language learners' vocabulary development. The present study was designed to examine whether intermediate learners incidentally (a) acquire and (b) retain unknown vocabulary as a result of reading. The study further assessed (c) the effect of the text variable of exposure frequency. Learners were exposed to unfamiliar words either two, four, or six times during reading. Vocabulary acquisition and retention measured productive and receptive knowledge gain. Results indicated that only two encounters with unfamiliar words during reading significantly affected learners' vocabulary growth. Moreover, two or four exposure frequencies resulted in fairly similar word gain, but six exposures produced significantly more vocabulary knowledge. Retention measures showed mixed results: On productive vocabulary knowledge only half of the subjects displayed a significant rate of retention. On receptive knowledge all but one experimental group retained vocabulary over 4 weeks.

Previous research on the impact of pretask planning on interlanguage development (e.g., Crookes, 1989; Ellis, 1987; Foster & Skehan, 1996) has focused solely on the linguistic quality of planned output, leaving the cognitive and attentional processes engaged during planning time unexplored. Drawing on recent research on focus on form (Doughty & Williams, 1998a) and on retrospective methodologies used in strategy use research (e.g., O'Malley & Chamot, 1990), the study reported here investigated whether planning opportunity results in an increased focus on form at the level of strategic attention to form during planning time, as well as at the level of production outcomes during task performance. The results provide support for the claim that planning before doing an L2 task can promote an increased focus on form by providing space for the learner to devote conscious attention during pretask planning to formal and systemic aspects of the language needed to accomplish a particular task.

In SLA research, dependence in frequency data is a prevalent problem (Hatch & Lazaraton, 1991). Researchers usually regard the data as being independent and subject them to statistical analyses. Another problem in frequency data analysis in SLA research is the exclusion of interaction terms. This is the case because of the use of chi-square analysis or the unpopularity of multifactorial frequency data analyses. This study investigates the violation of the “independent observation” assumption as well as the effect of including interaction terms in frequency data analysis. Reanalyzing a couple of published data sets, the paper argues in favor of using multifactorial frequency data analyses over multiple chi-squares in order to take into account dependence and interaction of the frequency data. A set of recommendations for SLA researchers will be provided when statistically analyzing frequency data in SLA research.

This article reports on a strategy training study that investigated the lexical processing strategies (LPSs; ignore, consult, infer) used by L2 learners when they encounter unfamiliar vocabulary while reading and the impact of these strategies on vocabulary learning. A time-series with repeated-measures design was used. Introspective data were gathered from eight participants (Francophone university students, intermediate ESL proficiency) on eight texts over 5 months to elicit LPS use on self-identified unfamiliar words. Then, 1 week after each reading, participants completed a cued recall task to measure their learning of these words. An analysis of overall LPS use (changes in patterns and effectiveness of strategy use with LPS-focused instruction) and word retention rates demonstrates the potential for vocabulary learning through reading and indicates that some LPSs lead to higher retention rates than others. This research increases our understanding of the role of LPS use in vocabulary learning and suggests some reevaluation of current pedagogic practice.

The field of language acquisition is divided over the question of whether the inborn mechanisms underlying linguistic development include actual grammatical categories and principles or are of a more general character. Recent proposals suggest a possible convergence of views on this matter, with implications for the study of both first language acquisition and second language learning. This paper explores this possibility by examining the evolution of grammatical nativism with particular emphasis on a radical shift in the generality of the inborn principles that have been posited in recent work. The nature and implications of this shift are illustrated with the help of developmental data involving gap-containing structures in first and second language acquisition.

This essay defends the idea that language is a unique, genetically underwritten (informationally encapsulated) “module of the mind” and considers some consequences such a stance holds for the psycholinguistic study of nonnative language (L2) acquisition. As is well known, language as conceived within the tradition of generative grammar (e.g., Chomsky, 1965, 1975, 1980, 1986) is unlike other types of cognition and its basis (viz., Universal Grammar) is innately given; this is the position I support in this paper. Specifically, I begin by summarizing the main arguments for this position, after which I discuss (following Segal, 1996) four different conceptions of what a module is and then devote particular attention to the theory developed by Fodor (1983, 1985) on the architecture of mind (his “modularity thesis”). There follows a comparison between the distinct views held by Chomsky and by Fodor on the conception of “the language module” and on the structure of mind more generally. Arguing that the two views are not inherently incompatible, I offer a speculation on how to begin to reconcile them, which leaves me well positioned to advance three specific implications for the theoretical study of L2 acquisition within the framework of generative grammar, couched within a theory of the modular mind.

Interaction and grammar is a valuable addition to the Cambridge “Studies in Interactional Sociolinguistics” series. The book is a collection of papers that all, in one way or another, and within the frameworks of linguistic anthropology, functional grammar, or conversation analysis, investigate the interface, or rather the essential interrelatedness, of language and real-time social interaction. The value of the book for the L2 researcher or practitioner is perhaps not direct; however, because much of L2 research focuses on interaction and draws its data from naturally occurring discourse, the indirect contribution is notable. In particular, the chapter by Fox, Hayashi, and Jasperson beautifully underscores those typological differences between English and Japanese that lead to different interactional strategies—an issue of direct relevance to L2 studies.

This paper is based on ongoing research on a recent low-dose, late partial English immersion (IM) program in Germany. The evaluation compares English language outcomes of IM groups, groups from non-IM schools, and non-IM groups from the same school as the IM groups, at various points of their development. This paper focuses on whether English vocabulary learning occurs incidentally while students are learning history or geography, or both, taught in English and whether there is evidence to suggest that the learning abilities activated in the IM classroom are the same as those found in traditional foreign language teaching and in naturalistic (untutored) L2 acquisition. The data derive from a communicative group test. It is shown that some of the lexical items cannot have come from the textbook or from other kinds of teaching materials used during regular foreign language instruction in the program. This leaves the teacher's oral use of English as the most likely source. Several implications for L2 acquisition theory and teaching practice are discussed.

We are grateful to Hidetoshi Saito for his careful and reasoned critique of the VARBRUL procedure in his article, “Dependence and Interaction in Frequency Data Analysis in SLA Research” (this issue). Saito reanalyzes Young's (1988, 1991) study of -s plural variation in the English interlanguage of native speakers of Chinese. He raises two criticisms of the statistical analyses in the original work: (a) data from all participants were lumped together, resulting in an analysis that ignores possible variation across participants; and (b) interaction between independent variables was not investigated, whereas Saito finds that an interaction term contributes to a statistical model that fits the data better than the original analysis.