Interactions between tRNA or its analogs and 23S rRNA in the large ribosomal subunit were analyzed by RNA footprinting and by modification–interference selection. In the E site, tRNA protected bases G2112, A2392, and C2394 of 23S rRNA. Truncated tRNA, lacking the anticodon stem-loop, protected A2392 and C2394, but not G2112, and tRNA derivatives with a shortened 3′ end protected only G2112, but not A2392 or C2394. Modification interference revealed C2394 as the only accessible nucleotide in 23S rRNA whose modification interferes with binding of tRNA in the large ribosomal subunit E site. The results suggest a direct contact between A76 of tRNA A76 and C2394 of 23S rRNA. Protections at G2112 may reflect interaction of this 23S rRNA region with the tRNA central fold.

Here we report further characterization of an in vitro assay system for exon ligation by the human spliceosome in which the 3′ splice site AG is supplied by a different RNA molecule than that containing the 5′ splice and branch sites. By varying the time during splicing reactions when the 3′ splice site AG is made available to the splicing machinery, we show that AG recognition need not occur until after lariat formation. Thus an early AG recognition event required for spliceosome formation and lariat formation on some mammalian introns is not required for exon ligation. Depletion/add-back studies and cold competitor challenge experiments reveal that commitment of a 3′ splice site AG to exon ligation requires NTP hydrolysis. Because it both physically and kinetically uncouples exon ligation from spliceosome assembly and lariat formation, the bimolecular system will be a valuable tool for further mechanistic analysis of the second step of splicing.

The 3′ end of replication-dependent histone mRNAs terminate in a conserved sequence containing a stem-loop. This 26-nt sequence is the binding site for a protein, stem-loop binding protein (SLBP), that is involved in multiple aspects of histone mRNA metabolism and regulation. We have determined the structure of the 26-nt sequence by multidimensional NMR spectroscopy. There is a 16-nt stem-loop motif, with a conserved 6-bp stem and a 4-nt loop. The loop is closed by a conserved U[bull ]A base pair that terminates the canonical A-form stem. The pyrimidine-rich 4-nt loop, UUUC, is well organized with the three uridines stacking on the helix, and the fourth base extending across the major groove into the solvent. The flanking nucleotides at the base of the hairpin stem do not assume a unique conformation, despite the fact that the 5′ flanking nucleotides are a critical component of the SLBP binding site.

The naturally occurring streptogramin B antibiotic, pristinamycin IA, which inhibits peptide elongation, can produce two modifications in 23S rRNA when bound to the Escherichia coli 70S ribosome and irradiated at 365 nm. Both drug-induced effects map to highly conserved nucleotides within the functionally important peptidyl transferase loop of 23S rRNA at positions m2A2503/Ψ2504 and G2061/A2062. The modification yields are influenced strongly, and differentially, by P-site-bound tRNA and strongly by some of the peptidyl transferase antibiotics tested, with chloramphenicol producing a shift in the latter modification to A2062/C2063. Pristinamycin IA can also produce a modification on binding to deproteinized, mature 23S rRNA, at position U2500/C2501. The same modification occurs on an ∼37-nt fragment, encompassing positions ∼2496–2532 of the peptidyl transferase loop that was excised from the mature rRNA using RNAse H. In contrast, no antibiotic-induced effects were observed on in vitro T7 transcripts of full-length 23S rRNA, domain V, or on a fragment extending from positions ∼2496–2566, which indicates that one or more posttranscriptional modifications within the sequence Cm-C-U-C-G-m2A-Ψ-G2505 are important for pristinamycin IA binding and/or the antibiotic-dependent modification of 23S rRNA.

A sensitive capillary electrophoresis mobility shift assay (CEMSA) to analyze RNA/peptide interactions has been developed. Capillary electrophoresis (CE) has been adapted for investigating the interaction between variously methylated 17-nt analogs of the yeast tRNAPhe anticodon stem and loop domain (ASLPhe) and 15-amino-acid peptides selected from a random phage display library (RPL). A peptide-concentration-dependent formation of RNA/peptide complex was clearly visible during CEMSA. In the presence of peptide, the UV-monitored CE peak for ASLPhe with three of the five naturally occurring modifications (2′-O-methylcytidine (Cm32), 2′-O-methylguanine (Gm34) and 5-methylcytidine (m5C40) shifted from 18.16 to 20.90 min. The mobility shift was observed only for methylated RNA. The negative effects of diffusion, electroosmotic flow and adhesion of molecules to the capillary internal wall were suppressed by using a buffer containing a sieving polymer and a polyacrylamide-coated capillary. Under these conditions, well-shaped peaks and resolution of RNA free and bound to peptide were achieved. Peptide tF2, the most populated ligand in the RPL, specifically bound triply methylated ASLPhe in a methylated nucleoside-dependent manner. CE was found to be an efficient and sensitive method for the qualitative analysis of RNA–peptide interaction and should be generally applicable to the study of RNA–peptide (protein) interactions.

RAE1 is an evolutionarily conserved protein that associates with both mRNPs and nucleoporins, and may bridge the interaction between mRNP export cargoes and the nuclear pore complex (NPC). However, the mechanism by which RAE1 functions in mRNA export is still unknown and the time point at which RAE1 interacts with the exported RNP has not been directly investigated. Here we have addressed this question in the Balbiani ring (BR) system of Chironomus tentans using immunoelectron microscopy. The RAE1 protein of C. tentans, Ct-RAE1, is 70% identical to human RAE1/mrnp41 (hRAE1) and is recognized by antibodies raised against hRAE1. As in vertebrate cells, Ct-RAE1 is concentrated at the nuclear envelope and also dispersed throughout the nuclear interior. Here we show that Ct-RAE1 does not bind to the BR particle either cotranscriptionally or in the nucleoplasm. Instead, the interaction between Ct-RAE1 and the exported BR particle occurs at the NPC. Moreover, the localization of Ct-RAE1 at the NPC is correlated with the presence of an exported RNP in the NPC. Finally, the anti-RAE1 antibody does not label the cytoplasmic side of BR particles in transit through the central channel, which indicates that Ct-RAE1 either remains anchored at the nuclear side of the NPC during translocation of the RNP through the central channel or becomes transiently associated with the RNP but is rapidly released into the cytoplasm.

Arginylation of tRNA transcripts by yeast arginyl-tRNA synthetase can be triggered by two alternate recognition sets in anticodon loops: C35 and U36 or G36 in tRNAArg and C36 and G37 in tRNAAsp (Sissler M, Giegé R, Florentz C, 1996, EMBO J 15:5069–5076). Kinetic studies on tRNA variants were done to explore the mechanisms by which these sets are expressed. Although the synthetase interacts in a similar manner with tRNAArg and tRNAAsp, the details of the interaction patterns are idiosyncratic, especially in anticodon loops (Sissler M, Eriani G, Martin F, Giegé R, Florentz C, 1997, Nucleic Acids Res 25:4899–4906). Exchange of individual recognition elements between arginine and aspartate tRNA frameworks strongly blocks arginylation of the mutated tRNAs, whereas full exchange of the recognition sets leads to efficient arginine acceptance of the transplanted tRNAs. Unpredictably, the similar catalytic efficiencies of native and transplanted tRNAs originate from different kcat and Km combinations. A closer analysis reveals that efficient arginylation results from strong anticooperative effects between individual recognition elements. Nonrecognition nucleotides as well as the tRNA architecture are additional factors that tune efficiency. Altogether, arginyl-tRNA synthetase is able to utilize different context-dependent mechanistic routes to be activated. This confers biological advantages to the arginine aminoacylation system and sheds light on its evolutionary relationship with the aspartate system.

Unnatural amino acid mutagenesis requires the in vitro production of aminoacyl tRNAs. Bacteriophage T4 RNA ligase is used to ligate α-amino-protected dCA amino acids to 74mer tRNA. Previously, there has been no facile method for evaluating the efficiency of this reaction prior to using the tRNA in translation. We report a novel use of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry in monitoring the formation of aminoacyl 76mer tRNA. This method is more efficient and precise than the traditional technique of gel electrophoresis. These MALDI conditions should also prove useful for analyzing aminoacyl tRNAs produced through aminoacyl tRNA synthetases and other methods.

The 16S rRNA central pseudoknot region in the 30S ribosomal subunit has been investigated by photocrosslinking from 4-thiouridine (s4U) located in the first 20 nt of the 16S rRNA. RNA fragments (nt 1–20) were made by in vitro transcription to incorporate s4U at every uridine position or were made by chemical synthesis to incorporate s4U into one of the uridine positions at +5, +14, +17, or +20. These were ligated to RNA containing nt 21–1542 of the 16S rRNA sequence and, after gel purification, the ligated RNA was reconstituted into 30S subunits. Long-range intramolecular crosslinks were produced by near-UV irradiation; these were separated by gel electrophoresis and analyzed by reverse transcription reactions. A number of crosslinks are made in each of the constructs, which must reflect the structural flexibility or conformational heterogeneity in this part of the 30S subunit. All of the constructs show crosslinking to the 559–562, 570–571, and 1080–1082 regions; however, other sites are crosslinked specifically from each s4U position. The most distinctive crosslinking sites are: 341–343 and 911–917 for s4U(+5); 903–904 (very strong), 1390–1397, and 1492 for s4U(+14); and 903–904 (moderate) for s4U(+17); in the 1070–1170 region in which there are different patterns for each s4U position. These results indicate that part of the central pseudoknot is in close contact with the decoding region, with helix 27 in the 885–912 interval and with part of domain III RNA. Crosslinking between s4U(+14) and 1395–1397 is consistent with base pairing at U14-A1398.

Trans-splicing requires that 5′ and 3′ splice sites be independently recognized. Here, we have used mutational analyses and a sensitive nuclease protection assay to determine the mechanism of trans-3′ splice site recognition in vitro. Efficient recognition of the 3′ splice site is dependent upon both the sequence of the 3′ splice site itself and enhancer elements located in the 3′ exon. We show that the presence of three distinct classes of enhancers results in increased binding of U2 snRNP to the branchpoint region. Several lines of evidence strongly suggest that the increased binding of U2 snRNP is mediated by U2AF. These results expand the roles of enhancers in constitutive splicing and provide direct support for the recruitment model of enhancer function.

Ribosomal protein S8, which is essential for the assembly of the central domain of 16S rRNA, is one of the most thoroughly studied RNA-binding proteins. To map its surrounding RNA in the ribosome, we carried out directed hydroxyl radical probing of 16S rRNA using Fe(II) tethered to nine different positions on the surface of protein S8 in 70S ribosomes. Hydroxyl radical-induced cleavage was observed near the classical S8-binding site in the 620 stem, and flanking the other S8-footprinted regions of the central domain at the three-helix junction near position 650 and the 825 and 860 stems. In addition, cleavage near the 5′ terminus of 16S rRNA, in the 300 region of its 5′ domain, and in the 1070 region of its 3′-major domain provide information about the proximity to S8 of RNA elements not directly involved in its binding. These data, along with previous footprinting and crosslinking results, allowed positioning of protein S8 and its surrounding RNA elements in a 7.8-Å map of the Thermus thermophilus 70S ribosome. The resulting model is in close agreement with the extensive body of data from previous studies using protein–protein and protein–RNA crosslinking, chemical and enzymatic footprinting, and genetics.

Analysis of the sequence of the mitochondrial cyt b gene of Teratocephalus lirellus revealed multiple frame shift events. As these sites coincided with homopolymeric tracks, sequencing was repeated and chromatograms were screened for poorly resolved peaks. No evidence for sequencing errors was found. We therefore reverse transcribed mRNA, using M-MLV reverse transcriptase and two primers for strongly conserved regions located anteriorly (CbF1: >5′-GTTTTGGAATGTTGGAAGGCTTTTAGG-3′) and posteriorly (CbR1: <5′-CCCAGATATCACCATAGCCAAATAGACG-3′) in the gene. The cDNA product was PCR amplified and sequenced, and compared with the gDNA sequences. This revealed insertions of a single U in eight sites in the mRNA sequence (Fig. 1).

Replacing a cassette of 31 residues from Escherichia coli release factor 1 with the equivalent residues in release factor 2 gave a protein active in codon-specific binding to the ribosome but inactive in peptidyl-tRNA hydrolysis. Such a phenotype is also found unexpectedly with release factor 2 when expressed at high concentration in bacteria. Substituting threonine with the release factor 1 equivalent serine at position 246 within the cassette restored the impaired activity of the chimeric protein, and also that of inactive recombinant release factor 2, both in vitro and in vivo. The differences in activity are not due to posttranslational modifications or a lack of it at this residue. Random mutagenesis of codon 246 suggests that this position is pivotal for the function of the release factor, being able to affect differentially both its binding to the ribosome and its peptide release activities. We propose that amino acid 246 is close to a sharp turn (GGQ motif at position 250), and is essential for transmitting the signal from cognate codon recognition by correctly positioning the peptidyl-tRNA hydrolysis domain of the release factor into the peptidyltransferase center.

The discovery of a second type of spliceosomal intron in the genomes of many multicellular eukaryotes raised the exciting possibility of comparing the structural and functional features of the two splicing systems with the hope of shedding light on important features of each (Tarn & Steitz, 1997). This hope was amply fulfilled with the discovery of the parallel roles played in the two systems by the respective sets of spliceosomal snRNAs. The initial identification of functions for the previously known U11 and U12 snRNAs (Hall & Padgett, 1994; Tarn & Steitz, 1996b) was magnified by the discovery of the novel U4atac and U6atac snRNAs (Tarn & Steitz, 1996a). The similarities of these latter two snRNAs to the U4 and U6 snRNAs of the major splicing system were apparent and led to detailed comparisons of the features of these RNAs and their interactions (Tarn & Steitz, 1996a). For both the U4/U6 pair and the U4atac/U6atac pair, a similar secondary structure was proposed involving two intermolecular base paired helical regions termed stem I and stem II, separated by an intramolecular stem-loop structure in both U4 and U4atac (Fig. 1A,B). Although the stem II interactions appeared to be very similar in both structures, the stem I interaction in the U4atac/U6atac structure was shorter and differently arranged than in the U4/U6 structure.

The replication-dependent histone mRNAs end in a conserved 26-nt sequence that forms a stem-loop structure. This sequence is required for histone pre-mRNA processing and plays a role in multiple aspects of histone mRNA metabolism. Two proteins that bind the 3′ end of histone mRNA are found in Xenopus oocytes. xSLBP1 is found in the nucleus, where it functions in histone pre-mRNA processing, and in the cytoplasm, where it may control histone mRNA translation and stability. xSLBP2 is a cytoplasmic protein, inactive in histone pre-mRNA processing, whose expression is restricted to oogenesis and early development. These proteins are similar only in their RNA-binding domains (RBD). A chimeric protein (1-2-1) in which the RBD of xSLBP1 has been replaced with the RBD of xSLBP2 binds the stem-loop with an affinity similar to the original protein. The 1-2-1 protein efficiently localizes to the nucleus of the frog oocyte, but is not active in processing of histone pre-mRNA in vivo. This protein does not support processing in a nuclear extract, but inhibits processing by competing with the active SLBP by binding to the substrate. The 1-2-1 protein also inhibits processing of synthetic histone pre-mRNA injected into frog oocytes, but has no effect on processing of histone pre-mRNA transcribed from an injected histone gene. This result suggests that sequences in the RBD of xSLBP1 give it preferential access to histone pre-mRNA transcribed in vivo.

The mRNA poly(A) tail serves different purposes, including the facilitation of nuclear export, mRNA stabilization, efficient translation, and, finally, specific degradation. The posttranscriptional addition of a poly(A) tail depends on sequence motifs in the 3′ untranslated region (3′ UTR) of the mRNA and a complex trans-acting protein machinery. In this study, we have replaced the 3′ UTR of the yeast TRP4 gene with sequences encoding a hammerhead ribozyme that efficiently cleaves itself in vivo. Expression of the TRP4-ribozyme allele resulted in the accumulation of a nonpolyadenylated mRNA. Cells expressing the TRP4-ribozyme mRNA showed a reduced growth rate due to a reduction in Trp4p enzyme activity. The reduction in enzyme activity was not caused by inefficient mRNA export from the nucleus or mRNA destabilization. Rather, analyses of mRNA association with polyribosomes indicate that translation of the ribozyme-containing mRNA is impaired. This translational defect allows sufficient synthesis of Trp4p to support growth of trp4 cells, but is, nevertheless, of such magnitude as to activate the general control network of amino acid biosynthesis.

The complex of ribosomal protein L1 with 23S rRNA from Escherichia coli is of great interest because of the unique structural and functional aspects of this ribonucleoprotein domain. We have minimized the binding site for protein L1 on the 23S rRNA to nt 2120–2129, 2159–2162, and 2167–2178. This RNA fragment consists of two helices as well as an interconnecting loop of unknown structure. RNA molecules corresponding to the minimized L1 binding site, in which G, A, U, or C were individually replaced by their deoxyribo- (dN) or α-thio- (rNαS) analogs have been synthesized by T7 transcription in vitro and analyzed for their ability to bind protein L1. It has been demonstrated that the substitution of rNαS at position 2122 or 2176 decreases the affinity of the RNA for the protein in the presence of magnesium five- to tenfold, whereas the same changes have little effect on binding in the presence of manganese. This suggests that Rp oxygens in the phosphates preceding positions 2122 and 2176 are coordinated with Mg2+ and may participate in L1-23S rRNA interaction via magnesium bridges. We have also shown that this interaction is impaired by the presence of dC at position 2122 coupled with the presence of deoxyribonucleotide(s) at other positions in the RNA. This study demonstrates that the ribose–phosphate backbone of the helix encompassing nt 2120–2124/2174–2178 is intimately involved in the interaction of protein L1 with the 23S rRNA. In particular, we suggest that this helix is positioned in the cleft between the two domains of protein L1.

Ribosomal protein L5 is a 5S rRNA binding protein in the large subunit and plays an essential role in the promotion of a particular conformation of 5S rRNA. The crystal structure of the ribosomal protein L5 from Bacillus stearothermophilus has been determined at 1.8 Å resolution. The molecule consists of a five-stranded antiparallel β-sheet and four α-helices, which fold in a way that is topologically similar to the ribonucleoprotein (RNP) domain. The molecular shape and electrostatic representation suggest that the concave surface and loop regions are involved in 5S rRNA binding. To identify amino acid residues responsible for 5S rRNA binding, we made use of Ala-scanning mutagenesis of evolutionarily conserved amino acids occurring in the β-strands and loop regions. The mutations of Asn37 at the β1-strand and Gln63 at the loop between helix 2 and β3-strand as well as that of Phe77 at the tip of the loop structure between the β2- and β3-strands caused a significant reduction in 5S rRNA binding. In addition, the mutations of Thr90 on the β3-strand and Ile141 and Asp144 at the loop between β4- and β5-strands moderately reduced the 5S rRNA-binding affinity. Comparison of these results with the more recently analyzed structure of the 50S subunit from Haloarcula marismortui suggests that there are significant differences in the structure at N- and C-terminal regions and probably in the 5S rRNA binding.

RNase P ribozyme cleaves an RNA helix that resembles the acceptor stem and T-stem structure of its natural ptRNA substrate. When covalently linked with a guide sequence, the ribozyme can function as a sequence-specific endonuclease and cleave any target RNA sequences that base pair with the guide sequence. Using a site-directed ultraviolet (UV) cross-linking approach, we have mapped the regions of the ribozyme that are in close proximity to a substrate that contains the mRNA sequence encoding thymidine kinase of human herpes simplex virus 1. Our data suggest that the cleavage site of the mRNA substrate is positioned at the same regions of the ribozyme that bind to the cleavage site of a ptRNA. The mRNA-binding domains include regions that interact with the acceptor stem and T-stem and in addition, regions that are unique and not in close contact with a ptRNA. Identification of the mRNA-binding site provides a foundation to study how RNase P ribozymes achieve their sequence specificity and facilitates the development of gene-targeting ribozymes.

In mammals, control of S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase (AdoMetDC) translation is one component of a feedback network that regulates intracellular levels of the polyamines, spermidine, and spermine. AdoMetDC mRNA from mammals contains a highly conserved upstream open reading frame (uORF) within its leader sequence that confers polyamine-regulated suppression of translation on the associated downstream cistron. This regulation is mediated through an interaction that depends on the amino acid sequence of the uORF-encoded hexapeptide. It remains to be shown whether polyamines participate directly in this interaction or indirectly through a specialized signal transduction pathway. We show that Saccharomyces cerevisiae does not have a uORF associated with its AdoMetDC gene (SPE2) and that ribosome loading on the SPE2 mRNA is not positively influenced by polyamine depletion, as it is in mammalian cells. Nevertheless, the mammalian AdoMetDC uORF, when introduced into a polyamine auxotroph of yeast, conferred polyamine regulation of both translational efficiency and ribosome loading on the associated mRNA. This regulatory activity depended on the amino acid sequence encoded by the fourth and fifth codons of the uORF, as in mammalian cells. The fact that the regulatory properties of this mammalian translational control element are quite similar in both mammalian and yeast cells suggests that a specialized signal transduction pathway is not required. Rather, it seems likely that polyamines may be directly participating in an interaction between the uORF-encoded peptide and a constitutive component of the translation machinery, which leads to inhibition of ribosome activity.