In Finland, Olkiluoto Island on the western coast has been selected as a repository site for spent nuclear fuel. Due to the shallow sea areas around the island, the postglacial land uplift is going to change the landscape within the next millennia. For instance, new lakes and mires will develop on the present offshore areas. Concerning radionuclide transport models, the properties of the future ecosystems surrounding Olkiluoto Island can be forecast based on the properties of present lakes and mires. Due to the lack of site-specific data, lakes and mires of various successional stages were selected within a larger geographical area as analogues of the future ones. Here we present an example of a systematic process for selection of appropriate analogue sites.

The CERES application (Code d’Evaluations Rapides Environnementales et Sanitaires) has been developed by CEA. It is used to evaluate the consequences on human health of releases of isotopes in the environment, either for emergency planning or for safety evaluation. Various types of emissions can be simulated: atmospheric accidental emission, atmospheric emission during normal operation or emission in liquid media under normal operation. Two versions exist, one devoted to radiological impact, the other one devoted to toxic impact.

Forsmark in Mideastern Sweden is chosen as site for the planned Swedish deep-rock repository for spent nuclear fuel. The construction, operation and decommissioning of the repository require assessments of various types of risks for health and environment on a wide range of temporal scales. This study is focused on the assessment of environmental impacts during the relatively short construction and operation phases, during which the repository will be kept drained by means of groundwater diversion. This diversion may influence hydrogeological and hydrological conditions and thereby cause ecological and other types of consequences in the surroundings of the repository. We here describe methodology and some main findings from the ecohydrological assessment of consequences for aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems in Forsmark. The assessment combines the results of a number of steps, including ecological field inventories and predictive water-flow modelling. The results of the study show that subsurface disposal of radioactive waste is an important application of ecohydrological concepts in assessments of sites with nature values.

The radiation risk due to the exposure to natural radionuclides, especially to short-lived radon progeny, is a component of the radiation hazard, common in the natural environment and working environment. In Polish mining industry the radiation hazard, caused by natural radionuclides is the natural hazard. Radon in air and radium present in underground brines are sources of radiation hazards. Sediments precipitated out from such waters with enhanced radium content may cause the increase of external gamma radiation dose rate as well as internal contamination due to accidental ingestion or inhalation.

Investigation of that specific problem has been started in hard coal underground mines in Poland in early 1970’s. At the end of 1980’s first regulation was issued. Dose limits and requirements of the radiation monitoring have been established, internal regulations for monitoring and mitigation measures were developed on the basis of the Polish standard. The monitoring and prevention against natural radiation is obligatory in all Polish underground mines since 1989. This duty is strictly supervised by local offices of State Mining Authority in co-operation with other governmental agencies.

One of the most serious problems occurring during coal extraction in Upper Silesia in Poland is caused by waters with high salinity which also often contain high concentrations of natural radionuclides, mainly 226Ra and 228Ra. Similar phenomenon is also observed in oil and gas industry. On the Norwegian continental shelf, substantial amounts of produced waters containing elevated levels of 226Ra and 228Ra are discharged to the sea. All of these facts outlined elsewhere in the reports serious resulted in contamination of wide areas surrounding mines and other related industries. Research studies conducted so far have provided a lot of data concerning the scale of this phenomenon. But nowadays, all of them should be reconsidered in the light of newest recommendation of the state of-the-art radiation protection. Namely, such waste deposited directly into the environment creates significant risk to the non-human biota that currently must be assessed as well. On the other hand, such scenario of exposure to ionising radiation creates a good opportunity to observe potential effects of low and protracted doses to the living organisms occurring on contaminated areas, especially plants.

Technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials (TENORM) touch many aspects of our life. Alterations of the natural composition of rocks during mining and processing may results in an increment of radiation risk to not only humans but wild plants and animals. Each particular type of TENORM determines a unique scenario of exposure. The “PORANO” project is focused on three aspects related to this theme:

• methods of monitoring of TENORM occurrence,

• methods of applying radiation risk assessment,

• regulation improvement.

In January 2009, the IAEA EMRAS II (Environmental Modelling for Radiation Safety II) program was launched. The goal of the program is to develop, compare and test models for the assessment of radiological impacts to the public and the environment due to radionuclides being released or already existing in the environment; to help countries build and harmonize their capabilities; and to model the movement of radionuclides in the environment. Within EMRAS II, nine working groups are active; this paper will focus on the activities of Working Group 1: Reference Methodologies for Controlling Discharges of Routine Releases. Within this working group environmental transfer and dose assessment models are tested under different scenarios by participating countries and the results compared. This process allows each participating country to identify characteristics of their models that need to be refined. The goal of this working group is to identify reference methodologies for the assessment of exposures to the public due to routine discharges of radionuclides to the terrestrial and aquatic environments. Several different models are being applied to estimate the transfer of radionuclides in the environment for various scenarios. The first phase of the project involves a scenario of nuclear power reactor with a coastal location which routinely (continuously) discharges 60Co, 85Kr, 131I, and 137Cs to the atmosphere and 60Co, 137Cs, and 90Sr to the marine environment. In this scenario many of the parameters and characteristics of the representative group were given to the modellers and cannot be altered. Various models have been used by the different participants in this inter-comparison (PC-CREAM, CROM, IMPACT, CLRP POSEIDON, SYMBIOSE and others). This first scenario is to enable a comparison of the radionuclide transport and dose modelling. These scenarios will facilitate the development of reference methodologies for controlled discharges.

The present work has been done within the IAEA Environmental Modelling for Radiation Safety Programme. EMRAS-II aims to improve the capabilities in the field of environmental radiation dose assessment by means of acquisition of improved data for model testing, comparison, reaching consensus on modelling philosophies, approaches and parameter values, development of improved methods and exchange of information.

A new information system for archiving and reporting the RPII’s environmental radioactivity monitoring data has been designed. The main objectives of the proposed system are: centralised storage of these data in a standard format; and standardised reporting and exporting functionality. This paper presents a conceptual model and prototype of the proposed system.

The Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland (RPII) has carried out a programme to monitor environmental radioactivity for many years. In 2009, a group of independent, international experts was requested to undertake a comprehensive strategic review of the programme. Here the objectives, terms of reference and process of this review are presented. As background, the legislative framework in which the programme is operated is laid out. The current programme is also summarised. Finally, the main conclusions and recommendations are described along with relevant changes to the programme which were subsequently enacted by the RPII.

We compared parameter values and models in N288.1 and TRS-472 and the doses predicted using them. The parameter values and models for tritium and C-14 are similar. For other radionuclides, the parameter values agree well for soil to plant transfer, and forage to animal products transfer. Agreement is not always good for the translocation factor (for which N288.1 is often more conservative) and for soil and sediment Kd and freshwater fish BAFs (for which N288.1 is often less conservative). Using parameter values from N288.1 rather than using those from TRS-472 results in higher doses for 8 of 9 radionuclides for airborne releases, and for 5 of 9 radionuclides for aquatic releases. For airborne releases, the maximum difference occurs for I-131, where using N288.1 parameter values results in doses being seven times higher. For aquatic releases, the difference reaches a factor of 194 for Co-60, with the use of N288.1 parameter values resulting in the lower dose. Where differences exist, site-specific values for key radionuclides should be obtained through a review of available data or new experiments. In the absence of site-specific data, the more conservative of the values in N288.1 and TRS-472 should be used.

The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission has the mission to protect people and the environment. To support this important mission, the U.S. NRC staff assesses techniques and methods to characterize, model, monitor, and remediate radionuclide releases and their migration through the subsurface. Insights from ongoing reviews of field investigations by NRC staff involving radionuclide transport in the subsurface illustrate the need to test and confirm conceptual site models (CSM). The assumptions and parameterization inherent to these CSMs which affect radionuclide release and transport should be tested. In particular, the unsaturated zone where many leaks and spills originate needs detailed characterization and confirmatory monitoring. A dose assessment to determine risk-informed compliance with regulatory criteria is used to evaluate the need for and selection of remediation methods. If remediation is warranted, the choice of remediation method(s) is based upon site- and source-characterization, modeling and monitoring data. These data should be used to the test the CSM. Remediation options range from highly-aggressive methods such as pump, treat, monitor, and recycle or release; to more passive methods such as monitored natural attenuation. All successful remediation strategies involve monitoring programs to determine their efficacy. This monitoring is coupled to performance assessment models using performance indicators (PIs). These PIs provide a measurable indication of remediation performance and are derived from analysis of the CSM and monitoring data.

Environmental protection is a priority and a constant concern at CEA. Seven centres are subject to environmental radioactive monitoring, owing to their research activities entailing radioactive discharges. The continuous improvement approach helps to optimise these discharges and achieve negligible impact by these activities on the neighbouring populations and the environment. The environmental radioactivity levels are therefore very low and are indeed often undetectable using the most sophisticated measuring devices. These measures provide appropriate information regarding environmental monitoring. In addition, an evaluation of the dosimetric impact induced by CEA activities is carried out annually on each site and the highest levels recorded do not exceed one micro-sievert per year.

One of the major objectives of the 6th Framework EC RTD EURANOS (European Approach to Nuclear and Radiological Emergency Management and Rehabilitation Strategies) project was to improve the RODOS (Real-time on-line decision support) system in its operational applicability. In the first phase of the project two possibilities for the main system development has been discussed: either to carry out refinements in the current version of RODOS or to consider a complete software re-engineering. The RODOS Users Group (RUG) finally concluded that the latter option was one to be realised. As a result a JAVA based version named JRODOS has been developed introducing a cross-platform solution capable to run on most operation systems, including Windows, Macintosh and the main UNIX derivates. The re-engineered system preserves computational models from RODOS, adding a powerful GIS support and applying modern database technologies with flexible configuration possibilities. Furthermore, these new GIS functionalities allowed implementing advanced simulation models for simulating countermeasures in inhabited areas (ERMIN - European Model for Inhabited Areas) and food production systems (AGRICP – Agricultural Countermeasure Program). Both simulation models have been part of the EURANOS project and represent state of the art modelling capabilities in their respective area.

One of the tasks of the European Commission (EC) under the Euratom Treaty is to collect, validate and provide information about the levels of radioactivity in the environment. In order to offer to the public a more balanced view on the annual dose that it may receive from environmental radioactivity, a few years ago we decided to explore the feasibility of preparing a European Atlas of Natural Radiation. By now 21 European countries have already provided indoor radon data, and efforts continue to extend this information to more countries. In addition, we started to investigate the feasibility of a “geogenic radon map”, which would show “what earth delivers” in terms of potential radon hazard. In this paper we present the current state of the art of preparing the Atlas and provide detailed statistics for the results already obtained. The current efforts are still focussed on radon, but also progress on other components, such as cosmic rays and terrestrial gamma radiation, will be presented and discussed.

Radioecology is defined as the study of the behaviour and effects of ionising radiations and radionuclides in the environment. Until recently, ecosystems were only considered in radioecology as an intermediate compartment between the source of radiation and man.

Interest in the effects of ionising radiation and radionuclides on the environment has recently increased because of the surge in the public awareness concerning the different sources of pollution of the environment and their effects on human health, the evolution of paradigm by the ICRP concerning the radiation protection of the environment, and the increase in our knowledge in that specific field of research. Radioecology is now a mature scientific domain which is standing on its own feet. Its maturity can be assessed in different domains: (i) Education: with the appearance and development of masters in Radioecology worldwide, it is becoming a proper teaching domain in Higher Education; (ii) networks of excellence: international collaboration are initiated all over the world; (iii) Regulation: radiation protection of the environment is becoming a major point of concern along with the radiation protection of the public worldwide (ICRP, IAEA, IUR,…) and more specifically in the European Union; (iv) Public concern: the public mind is now open for and in an urgent need for more information about the implications of human activities, and among them those producing and releasing ionising radiations and radionuclides, on his own environment and health, i.e. on his personal feeling of well-being.

During the early phase of a large-scale accident with release of radioactivity to the atmosphere, it is essential to notify and inform competent authorities as early and as extensively as possible. Only when the accident is rapidly notified and information is continuously made available in the form of real-time monitoring data and dispersion forecasts are decision makers able to define appropriate countermeasures. The Chernobyl accident taught us that information exchange should be carried out in a harmonised and consistent manner. Although several European countries already had developed automatic monitoring networks by 1986 and in some cases established bilateral agreements to exchange this information, the size of the accident demonstrated the need to extend such schemes to the continental scale. It became important to have commonly agreed international data formats and procedures in place. Over the past 25 years, the European Commission has invested in improving the rapid exchange of information and data in the event of a major accident. For the early phase of emergency support, it has focussed on three closely related systems: the early notification system ECURIE, the automatic data exchange platform EURDEP and the atmospheric dispersion model exchange and evaluation system ENSEMBLE. Starting from the legal background, we describe these information systems in detail with an emphasis on their current status and their planned future developments.

During the last decade or so, the topic of environmental protection from ionising radiation has become a major issue within the field of radiological protection. The change of focus from a purely anthropocentric approach has led to the development and availability of bespoke methodologies for the assessment of impacts on wildlife from radioactive contaminants. The application of such assessment methodologies to actual situations, however, remains relatively limited. This paper describes the implementation of the ERICA Integrated Approach and associated tools to areas exhibiting elevated levels of NORM at Søve in Norway and Wislinka and Kaniow in Poland. In all cases, lichen and bryophytes were found to be the most exposed organisms and tree and large mammals the least exposed. With the exception of Kaniow, Ra-226 is the radionuclide that dominates in terms of its contribution to the total dose rates for all animal organism groups. For plants, Th-228 and Po-210 are dominant contributors. While Th-228 is the primary contributor to external dose rates for all species at Søve and Wislinka, Ra-226 is the primary contributor to internal dose rates in most cases for all sites.

The present work encompasses some key aspects of a 3-year long research project (INTRANOR) where the main focus has been specifically on environmental assessments for radiation exposure through application of existing methodologies and their adaptation to quantify transfer, exposure and effects in Boreal/Arctic ecosystems. Non-parametric statistical methods have been applied in order to estimate the threshold dose rates above which radiation effects can be expected in vertebrate organisms. In addition, industrial areas contaminated by uranium mill tailings and radium production wastes, in the Komi Republic, Russia, were selected as suitable sites to study further the effects of exposure to radiation under boreal conditions. Dose–effect relationships have been established for a few natural populations inhabiting this area. Analyses of data have allowed benchmarks to be established below which no decrease in reproductive capacity could be observed. Other work performed within the project includes the collation of data in relation to naturally occurring radionuclides and application of existing methodologies to characterise background radiation exposures. These dose-rates may be a suitable means of contextualising the exposure attributable to enhanced dose-rates arising from human activities. Finally, combined action of ionizing radiation and low temperature has been analyzed and mathematically modelled.

This article summarises some key activities undertaken as part of a NATO-funded project to map and improve our understanding of the behaviour and fate of radionuclides in the Belarusian Sector of the Chernobyl Exclusion zone. Data are presented concerning activity concentrations of 137Cs, 90Sr and selected actinides and how these data have been used to produce contour maps of contamination densities. Factors affecting the transfer of radionuclides to plants and animals at selected study sites are considered and the geochemical phase association of radionulcides in soils and implications for actinide mobility commented upon. A final important subject for elaboration has been the transboundary transport of contamination by natural phenomena. The influence of forest fires on remobilisation of radionuclides, for example, has been addressed through the application of a bespoke probabilistic model.