The numbering continues that given in the descriptions of illustrated crucibles and crucible fragments (fig. 4) in the printed text. See also full catalogue of metallurgical debris in Table 2.

32. Crucible body fragment, almost certainly from crucible no. 31 (6.00 g), showing relining; 25 x 22 x 20 mm. Context 08. Ref. LB-OX-125.

33. 1 body fragment from crucible no. 31 (2.2 g); thin vitrification only, outer layers perhaps having spalled off; 22 x 14 x 9 mm. Context 09. Ref. LB-OX-123.

Radiocarbon dates on samples excavated earlier this century by Gray and Keiller and one more recently by Pitts, confirm that the henge at Avebury is in the same general Late Neolithic horizon as the other great Wessex enclosures of Durrington Walls, Marden and Mount Pleasant. They leave open to interpretation the details of Avebury's sequence. The monument may have been constructed in a series of stages, but further investigation is badly needed.

This paper presents a re-assessment of the date and constructional sequence of the Sanctuary, a later Neolithic timber and stone setting on Overton Hill, near Avebury. Previous interpretations involving elaborate phasing and a protracted chronology for the site are rejected. Instead, it is argued that the site represents a single or double phase monument, constructed around 2500 cal BC and associated with pottery of the Grooved Ware tradition. The character of the pre-monument activity, construction and use of the site is examined. Patterns of formal deposition, involving pottery, lithics and human bone, are recognized, and considered in the context of the site's architecture and the structured organization of space, access and movement.

Five pollen diagrams from two mires in the province of Huelva in south-west Spain are re-evaluated in the light of 15 radiocarbon dates, and multivariate numerical analyses of modern and fossil pollen samples in the region. The results of these analyses suggest that managed woodland of dehesa type can be detected in pollen diagrams, and can be interpreted within the archaeological sequence known from the area.

Introduction

The bone fragments from Loanleven had several areas of green staining on their surfaces. They were analysed elementally to determine whether copper was present in the stained areas which might suggest that they were due to corrosion of a copper object.

Method

The bone fragments were analysed quantitatively without sampling or surface preparation using energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (XRF). A Rhodium target X-ray tube run at an accelerating voltage of 46KV was used to produce the primary X-ray beam which was collimated to give an elliptical irradiated area on the surface of the specimen about 1 mm x 1.5 mm.

Detailed topographical surveys and geophysical examinations of the Penrith ‘henges’ were undertaken in order to assess the present state of the monuments for management purposes. At Mayburgh geophysical prospection was designed to assess the validity of the early reports of the presence of two concentric settings of stones. Some possible parallels in Ireland are noted. The nearby site of King Arthur's Round Table was also sampled by geophysical techniques, but was found to be too disturbed for the recovery of any further information as to its original form. The ‘cremation trench’ discovered in pre-War excavations at this site was relocated. The position of the enigmatic Little Round Table was re-established by both topographical and geophysical methods, and its north entrance firmly located. The classification of Mayburgh and of the Little Round Table is considered. The apparent disunity of these three distinctly different monuments within one complex is emphasised—all are traditionally classified as ‘henge-related’, yet the structure and orientation of each site is markedly different. Contemporary topographical considerations are now difficult to reconstruct.

Analyses of the following items are given in microfiche Table 6, where details of sample and context numbers are also listed. See also full catalogue of metallurgical debris in Table 2.

44. Irregular flat piece of bronze, 13x12 mm; as cast medium tin bronze; corroded away; dendrite arm spacing = 30 40μ, suggesting a moderate cooling rate; interdendritic distribution of sulphide clusters, all basically Cu2S, although some contain a few percent iron; massive surface corrosion with islands of α and δ; fragments of charcoal and small areas of typical melting slag adhering, some possibly having originally floated on the surface of a melt. It is reasonable to suppose that this piece could have been the residue left in a crucible after a pour and had set there and been knocked out later, with charcoal and dross still embedded in the metal. See also analysis of sulphide inclusions in microfiche Table 7.

Small-scale rescue excavations at Llwyn Bryn-dinas hillfort, on the Welsh Borderland, showed that the earliest fortification belonged to the late Bronze Age, with radiocarbon dates in the late 9th and 8th centuries be. A terrace, subsequently cut into the rear of the rampart to accommodate a metal-working floor, was associated with a radiocarbon date centred in the late 3rd century bc. Detailed analysis of the metal-working debris suggests that copper-alloy casting, iron forging and possibly bronze production were carried out within a single workshop. The finds include a distinctive form of handled crucible. The industry appears to have been fairly small-scale, of short duration, and probably only designed to meet the internal needs of the hillfort population. The excavation adds significantly to the local evidence for metal-working during the later prehistoric period. A distinctive zinc-impurity pattern in the copper alloy and raw copper, previously identified in material from other sites nearby, confirms the suggestion of an Iron Age bronze-working industry based on a specific metal source in the north Powys area. In addition, analysis of the iron-working debris suggests the exploitation of a distinctive local ore body. The metal-working activity appears to have come to an abrupt end, possibly with the enlargement or local repair of the rampart. Later phases of activity include a final occupation deposit with an associated radiocarbon date centred in the mid 2nd century bc.

Four samples were collected from a vertical sequence with No 1 at the base straddling contexts 0089 and 0066, No 2 straddling contexts 0066 and 0021, No 3 in the centre of context 0021, and uppemiost No 4 between contexts 0021 and 0065.

The four slides were described following the international system for thin section description (Bullock et al., 1985). Slides No 1 and 2 were virtually identical whilst slides 3 and 4 were variations on these. It thus seemed best to provide a full description of slide No 1 which is also applicable to No 2 and then only to describe the differences between these two pairs of slides which are of a particular interpretational value.

The excavations of the cemetery groups at Balneaves, Loanleven and Park of Tongland facilitate an examination of many aspects of Bronze Age burial practices in Scotland. They are notable as much for the differences in burial ritual they imply as for the very narrow chronological period in which they were used. The three sites produced a total of seventeen 14C dates, two of which are aberrant, with means of the remaining fifteen falling within a period of 250 years (3370–3610 bp in radiocarbon years). The excavations were sponsored by Historic Scotland (formerly Historic Buildings and Monuments, Scotland).

At Balneaves, a penannular ditch enclosed sixteen features, including a group of seven pits with cremation burials, four of which were associated with a distinctive assemblage of collared urns. The cremated bone was well preserved. At least one large standing stone had been erected on the site, and this was buried in the medieval period.

At Loanleven, only a segment of the enclosing ring-ditch survived, within which were four cists, two containing inhumations and two cremations, one of the latter (Cist 2) associated with a fragment of a food vessel. A decorated slab, in so-called ‘Passage Grave Style’, was recovered from Cist 1, and the same cist produced palynological evidence for grave furnishings in the form of a mat of plant material which probably underlay the body. 14C dates give a terminus ante quem of 3620±50 bp (GU–2543) for the re-use of the decorated slab, and a terminus post quem of 3410±50 bp (GU–2542) for the food vessel grave.

Park of Tongland, regarded as a Four-Poster stone circle, was excavated after the fall of a standing stone. It was shown to be of multi-period construction, consisting of a cairn which overlay seven pits containing fragmentary cremation burials, two associated with collared urns. The standing stones may not all have been erect at the same time. A series of 14C dates fell within the range of 1480–1530 bc.

Analysis of the following items is given in microfiche Table 9, which also gives details of sample and context numbers. See also full catalogue of metallurgical debris in Table 2.

50. Hammer scale (0.05 g). Microstructure: impossible to stabilise, therefore only a rmall amount polished. Massive oxide (mainly magnetite) and a Tayalitic glass* but containing Al and P as well as the elements expected of fayalite.

51. 5 flakes of hammer scale.

In order to test the potential of pollen analysis to resolve certain site environmental questions, a total of 5 pollen samples (numbered 1 to 5) were examined. Numbers 1 to 4 refer to series of Kubiena tins which formed a column up through the sub-caim OGS. Number 5 was also from the OGS but from a different profile.

Excavations at Ewanrigg, Maryport, Cumbria (NY035353) took place in 1983 and 1985–87. The site of a Bronze Age cremation cemetery was discovered whilst fieldwalking a crop-mark enclosure site; this site had been trial excavated in 1956 and shown to be a Romano-British settlement. During the excavations 28 burials were discovered, 26 being cremations and two inhumations. Both inhumations, one a Beaker burial and the other a cist burial with a Food Vessel, had been disturbed. The Bronze Age pottery assemblage was a mixture of Collared Urns and Food Vessel Urns; the Collared Urns are mainly Secondary Series with one showing some Primary Series traits. Fragments of two Beakers were discovered, one an N/MR Beaker and the other more in the long-necked Northern series tradition. All the pottery, except the N/MR Beaker, was made from local clay. Within one of the cremation burials a clay connecting rod for a furnace was discovered and apart from one other site this is the only discovery which shows any link between metal-working and the burials within the Collared Urn tradition. Also within the cremations were a number of toggles and pins made from animal bone. The human cremated bone was sufficiently well preserved to allow analysis to show that there were six female and five male burials. Radiocarbon samples, mainly on charcoal, gave a date range for the Collared Urns of 2460–1520 BC (calibrated to two standard deviations).

See analyses of the following items in microfiche Table 9, where details of sample number and context are also given. See also full catalogue of metallurgical debris in Table 2.

52. 5 fragments of lining material (18 g).

53. 8 fragments; probably pieces of vitrified lining material with Cu stains (8 .00 g); possibly just over-fired crucible.

54. 15 fragments of fuel ash slag (8.3 g), some copper stained. Analysis indicates copper-working slag.

About 170 round barrows and 15 flat graves from Kent are here recorded, almost all on the Chalk. In addition there are at least as many ring-ditches, mostly of ploughed-out round barrows, in Thanet, only a small selection of which are here included as a full list is being prepared by the Trust for Thanet Archaeology. Nine sites have yielded primary central inhumations and ten have contained primary central cremations. Four sites have yielded burials in their encircling ditch. Warrior equipment has come from two sites, and ‘Wessex’ interments from another two. Barrow Wouldham 1/THAN contained a central primary cremation in a four-post mortuary structure with parallels in the Toterfout-Halve-Mijl cemetery in the Netherlands, with which area relations are suggested. One site (Lydden 1/DOV) is identified as the Ellenbeorge of an Anglo-Saxon land charter. Several Bronze Age round barrows were used by the Jutes and Saxons for their intrusive burials, and there are two instances of an Anglo-Saxon cemetery being sited to adjoin a Bronze Age round barrow. More than twenty sites have recorded local names of which the most frequent general name is Mount. Some of the best surviving barrows are beside or near the North Downs Way and the Pilgrims' Way.

Long-handled combs, predominantly made of antler — although some are of bone or perhaps whalebone — and traditionally associated with weaving, have been thought to be an almost exclusively British phenomenon (Hodson 1964, 103). They are first found in middle or later Bronze Age contexts, but are more usually associated with the Iron Age and go out of use in the later 1st century AD. Although dating of these tools is imprecise, on some sites such as Glastonbury (Bullied & Gray 1911) and Maiden Castle (Wheeler 1943, 298) one can say that the earlier ones are plain and later ones decorated, often with dot and circle and linear patterns. However evidence from Danebury shows the reverse to be the case (Cunliffe & Poole 1991). The combs measure between 80 to 222 mm with an average length of 150 mm. They are mostly dentated only at one end, although some are double-ended. There are usually between 8 and 13 teeth and at the other end the shape of the butts can be plain or they may have squared or rounded ends with or without perforations.

Anna Roes (1963) drew attention to a comb from the Frisian terps in the Netherlands (fig. 1, no. 1), housed in the Fries Museum, Leeuwarden. She considered that it may well have been imported from Britain. The comb is undecorated but polished. Its length is 141 mm and width at teeth 37 mm and at the butt end 18 mm. The comb is very concave at the dentated end. There had originally been 12 teeth of which only one outer tooth remained and this is worn on its inner side. Recently two further combs have been found in the Netherlands on two domestic sites of the pre-Roman Iron Age (sites 15.04 and 16.59). Both were excavated by A. Abbink from the Institute of Prehistory of the University of Leiden in 1989 and 1990 respectively (Abbink 1989; 1991).

This paper starts by outlining the history of stone axe studies in Ireland, from their antiquarian beginnings to 1990. It then offers a critical review of the current state of knowledge concerning the numbers, distribution, findspot contexts, morphology, size, associated finds, dating and raw materials of stone axes. Having proposed an agenda for future research, the paper ends by introducing the Irish Stone Axe Project—the major programme of database creation and petrological identification, funded by the National Heritage Council, currently being undertaken by GC and EG.

The following slags are described separately: see also full catalogue in microfiche Table 2. See analyses of each of the following items (with the exo tptioi of nr 69), including occasional metallic inclusions, in microfiche Table 9, where details of sample number and conte... are also given.

55. Moderate-sized plano-convex,slag (type 4), with moderate porosity and few charcoal impressions (174 g). Microstructure: moderate-sized semi-dendritic iron-oxide FeO (40-60%) inhomogeneously distributed, in matrix of fayalite and fayalite plus iron oxide pseudo-eutectic. A little ternary glass+fayalite+iron oxide eutectic present. Some regions of pure fayalite; others with large laths of fayalite and iron oxides outlined by giass and iron oxide eutectic. A little metallic iron present.

56. Fragment of dense plano-convex slag (50.5 g). Patchily distributed iron oxide (FeO), locally massive (100%), and distorted. Dendrite arm size and spacing varies through fine-moderate-large arms. Matrix of fayalite and unresolved eutectic. A little metallic iron.

57. Piece of dense plano-convex slag (37 g). Moderate porosity. Metallic iron common in regions with less iron oxide. There are two regions: one with pools of massive semi-globular FeO with 90+% iron oxide (wustite), interspersed with regions with moderate or fine dendritic FeO in a matrix of unresolved material. Metallic iron contains several percent copper!

The site country rock is greywacke and shale of Llandovery age (Silurian). There may be dykes of porphyrite in the near vicinity. This stone, with altered country rock, is worked at Tongland Quarry, 3/4 mile due south of the site.

It was not possible to visit the site during the excavation; the identifications are of samples taken from features on site by the excavator. Samples were supplied from:-

a. outcrop to west of the site and recorded by Coles as one of an outer arc of low standing stones

b. outcrop to north of the site and recorded by Coles (1895) as one of an outer arc of low standing stones

c. two samples of the cairn material

d. one sample from the cairn kerb material