King George Island and Nelson Island, close together in the central South Shetland Islands, were discovered early in the 19th century and often visited by whalers and sealers. Whalers also used their harbours early in the present century. The first permanent station was established in 1947 by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey. Currently they are the site of scientific stations and depots operated by eight Antarctic Treaty nations (Argentina, Brazil, Britain, Chile, Peoples' Republic of China, Poland, USSR and Uruguay), all of which make use of their accessible harbours and relatively long summer season.

After unsuccessful introductions of reindeer into Canada during the early decades of this century, a herd brought from Alaska in 1935 was maintained successfully under government management (latterly under the Canadian Wildlife Service) for almost 40 years in the Mackenzie Delta region, Northwest Territories. Sold in 1974 into private ownership, the herd has since increased substantially in size; new management techniques have been developed to herd, handle and slaughter the animals. Meat, antlers in velvet and skins are the main products of a small but profitable local industry under native ownership. Currently numbering some 16 000 animals, the herd now justifies new management decisions affecting its future size and the scope of the enterprise.

The old Norwegian text known as Konungs skuggsjá (The King's Mirror), hereafter abbreviated KS, is I believe the most significant early European vernacular document for northern research. This opinion was explicitly stated by Nansen, (1911, 2: 242):

On 21 July 1904, just over 80 years ago, the barque-rigged, Norwegian-built auxiliary steamship Scotia sailed home up the Clyde with members of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition (SNAE), concluding one of the most successful expeditions of the heroic period of Antarctic exploration. Contemporaneous with the more spectacular British Antarctic Expedition (1901–03) commanded by Robert Falcon Scott, the Scotia party under William Spiers Bruce had overwintered on Laurie Island (60° 44ʹ S, 44° 50ʹ W) in the South Orkney Islands, explored for the first time the oceanography of the Weddell Sea, assembled an important collection of scientific material, and discovered Coats Land, an icebound stretch of the East Antarctica coast.

While Scott's Discovery expedition had emphasized geographical exploration inland from the Ross Sea sector of Antarctica, Bruce in the Scotia had concentrated more on scientific discovery in the Weddell Sea sector. On 12 November 1904 in Edinburgh, members of the Scotia and Discovery expeditions were guests at the 20th anniversary dinner of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society, Bruce and Scott together responding to a presidential toast that honoured the success of both.

Sagas, law texts, court and ecclesiastical manuscripts, the King's Mirror, and later texts of the 17th and 18th centuries provide information on whaling activities in Iceland during the classical period (up to 1300) and later. Most references concern whales washed or driven ashore, rather than hunted in the open sea. Beached whales were clearly regarded as valuable food resources, generating disputes, litigation and other social conflict among the communities of the Icelandic Commonwealth.

The battle of Petropavlovsk in August/September 1854 was a significant though little known victory for the Russians during the Crimean War. Petropavlovsk, i n Kamchatka, was attacked by a Franco-British naval force intending to destroy Russian ships within the harbour and to render the port unusable as a naval base. Allied plans were disrupted by the death ofthe commander in chief, the British Admiral Price, just before the action was joined. A bombardment on 31 August badly damaged the harbour defences and, if followed up, would probably have resulted in success. After a gap of three days, the allies mounted a landing in the rear of the town which was, after severefighting, repelled by the Russians. After this defeat, the squadron dispersed t o ports on the other side of the Pacific.

During spring 1983 a joint British-Norwegian expedition from the Scott Polar Research Institute (SPRI) and the Norsk Polarinstitutt (NP) undertook a programme of glaciological research in the Svalbard archipelago. Work focussed on obtaining airborne radio echo sounding measurements using a newly-constructed digital system and some reconnaissance observations (temperatures, net mass budgets and ice velocities) on the ice caps of Nordaustlandet for the investigation of their surging behaviour. Valley glaciers in Spitsbergen and the ice cap on Kvitøya were also sounded from the air.

Plans exist in the USSR to divert southward part of the flow of some northern Russian and Siberian rivers, notably the Northern Dvina, Pechora, Ob' and Yenisey, to alleviate water shortages in Central Asia, Kazakhstan and the Ukraine, and counter falling water levels in the Aral and Caspian Seas. Possible effects of diverting small and large amounts of river water away from the Arctic are discussed in the light of recent observations and modelling studies of Arctic basin hydrology and sea ice distribution. Current evidence suggests that small diversions planned to operate before the end of this century will have little effect on ocean circulation or sea ice distribution. Larger-scale diversions planned for the future might affect sea ice formation over the shelf regions of the Kara and Barents Seas, but are unlikely to have a major effect on circulation or sea ice distribution over the Arctic Ocean as a whole.

The United Nations as a body has hitherto shown little interest or involvement in Antarctica. A recently developed campaign, led by several of the developing nations, now aims to involve the international community more closely in the management of the continent and its resources. Argument that Antarctica should be regarded as part of the common heritage of mankind finds little support among Antarctic Treaty nations, who favour continuing management under the treaty system. A nine-hour discussion in the First Committee of the United Nations General Assembly during November 1983 resulted in a resolution on ‘the question of Antarctica’ which the General Assembly adopted unanimously on 15 December; the Secretary-General has been asked to report on ‘all aspects of Antarctica’ in time for further discussion in September 1984.

Between February 1972 and January 1983, successively using positioning satellites Eole, Nimbus F, Tiros N-Argos, movements of 21 Antarctic icebergs were monitored daily from radio transmissions; 17 of the bergs were followed over periods of 228–828 days through distances of 1600 to 8000 km (2000 to 5000 nautical miles, nm). Mean daily positions, calculated from several observations, were accurate to less than 5.5 km (3 nm) for Eole and Nimbus, 0.9 km (0.5 nm) for Argos. Grouped into three areas (Weddell Sea, Enderby Land to Adelie Land, Ross Sea), the trajectories cover four fifths of the continental periphery. Movements clearly indicate singular points along the boundary between the two circumpolar currents, the East Wind and West Wind drifts, and variations in the strength and direction of flow of these currents; submarine topography and other underlying causes are suggested.

Following a review of commercially-viable offshore oil deposits in northern Canada, Alaska and Greenland, the author explores alternative possibilities currently under consideration for transporting the oil to centres where it will be used.

Hazards of pipeline construction, particularly under water, and the problems and dangers associated with giant surface tankers and projected giant submarines are discussed. The author concludes that conventional submarines towing oil-filled plastic drogue tanks offer the safest and most expeditious method of solving the problem. This is the second of two articles (see Polar Record, 21 (133): 369–81 (1983)).

Biographical variables, clinical ratings and psychological tests were used to predict performance of the eleven subjects involved in the International Biomedical Expedition to the Antarctic. The results showed that of the biographical predictors, past polar experience and age were best for predicting low stress and high arousal. Of the clinical predictions those made by a psychologist who had access to both interviews and psychometric material, and had been to the Antarctic, were more accurate than those of two other psychologists who had access to only the psychometric material and had not been there. Of the psychological tests, the initial stress scores were found to be good predictors of later stress and arousal, the initial arousal scores to be good predictors of later stress and self adaptation ratings, and the preferred interpersonal distance scores to be good predictors of independent observer ratings and peer ratings of adaptability.

Much ink has been spilled over the future prospects of a Northern native economy based on a mix of hunting, trapping and wage work. Information on the mixed economy appeared during debates over Northern pipeline development which raged during the 1970s; though the native lifestyle came under close scrutiny during that period, sceptics remain unconvinced of the very existence, let alone the viability, of a native mixed economy. In their view a way of life based on harvesting ‘country foods’ is moribund and should give place as soon as possible to a full-fledged wage economy; those who think otherwise, including the authors of pipeline inquiries, are misguided romantics. This paper re-examines the debates over the prospects for a native hunting economy, and comes down on the side of its proponents. The author concludes that, given proper institutional support, a mixed economy should persist into the next century, and shows that the critics of the bush economy have underestimated its contribution to the welfare of Northern natives.

In 1983 the UN Secretary-General was requested by the General Assembly to prepare a ‘Study on the question of Antarctica’ for the 1984 meeting of the Assembly. Published in November 1984, the Study provided a foundation for the UN First Committee's discussions of 28–30 November. These demonstrated, as had the discussions of the previous year, the polarization of views among UN member states for and against the Antarctic Treaty System. The UN resolution that followed the discussions similarly represented little advance on that of 1983, merely postponing any decision for a further year. Meanwhile the considerable amount of information marshalled for the Study may help to spread interest in Antarctic affairs and enhance international understanding.

Seismic survey activities in the western Beaufort Sea, involving ships and sound production, were monitored in autumn 1982 for their possible effects on migrating Bowhead whales Balaena mysticetus. The study, begun in 1981 by die Minerals Management Service of the US Department of the Interior, covered offshore waters between the Alaskan coast and 72°N. Distribution, behaviour and numbers of whales were recorded, and procedures were established for monitoring and controlling seismic activities in their presence.

There was no animal on South Georgia that we took into our hearts so much as these comical ‘Johnnies’, as the whalers call them. Not one of us, I am convinced, will recall our isolated existence in later years without simultaneously thinking with inner pleasure of these wonderful creatures. In their droll caricaturing of human gait and movements they provided an inexhautible source of humorous observations; further, in that their eggs allowed our chef to rise to unexpected achievements, they provided an equally pleasant resource.

Living resources of polar zones (areas limited by the 10°C isotherm for the warmest month) have in the past been developed exploitively: examples range from 17th century Arctic whales to musk oxen, caribou, and most recently fin fish stocks from Antarctic waters. Mineral resources as yet remain under-developed, particularly in the Antarctic. This is due to a combination of technological problems imposed by the harsh environment, and marketing problems accentuated by remoteness. Recent scientific and technological advances make further mineral exploitation feasible, though markets do not as yet justify the high costs of development in the Antarctic, where there remain unsolved technical and transportation problems. Future exploitation of living resources is likely to be more conservative than hitherto, especially in the Antarctic where the Treaty System provides potential safeguards. Management plans based on rational decision-making, and incorporating environmental safety measures, are needed to ensure that all further development of renewable natural resources, at either end of the earth, is conducted on a sustainable basis, and that all development proceeds with minimal environmental disturbance.

Aleksandr Stepanovich Kuchin (1888–1912) was already an experienced mariner and oceanographer when Amundsen invited him to join the Fram expedition of 1910–12. Expecting a voyage through the Barents Sea, Kuchin found himself on an expedition to the Antarctic. While Amundsen's sledging parties sought the South Pole, Kuchin remained with the ship, completing an excellent oceanographic survey of the southern Atlantic Ocean. Returning to Russia in 1912 he was recruited, by the geologist and explorer V. A. Rusinov to join a scientific expedition to Svalbard. As deputy leader of the party and captain of Gerkules, the expedition ship, Kuchin played an important role in the Svalbard survey. Then once again found himself heading in an unexpected direction: on completing the Svalbard work, Rusanov decided to attempt the Northern Sea Route to the Bering Strait. Gerkules disappeared and was never seen again; her loss, presumably in the Kara Sea, brought to an untimely end the career of a promising young polar explorer.