Human-tiger conflict occurs in Indonesia but there is little recent information about the scope of the problem, and adequate policies are not in place to address the conflict. Published and unpublished reports of conflict between Sumatran tigers Panthera tigris sumatrae, people and their livestock were collected and analysed to characterize the extent, distribution and impact of human-tiger conflict on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. Reportedly, between 1978 and 1997, tigers killed 146 people and injured 30, and killed at least 870 livestock. Conflict was less common in protected areas and more common in intermediate disturbance areas such as multiple-use forests where tigers and people coexist. In Indonesia there is a need to develop a definition of problem tigers, a database to track conflicts, and a process to respond immediately to conflicts when they occur. Without a better understanding of human-tiger conflict and a concerted effort to proactively address the problem, future landscape-level tiger conservation and management efforts may be jeopardized.

Thirty-three islands in the Lesser Antilles range in area from 0.06 to 1,510 km2 and harbour 25 species of snakes representing five families and 10 genera. The islands have suffered at least six, and possibly as many as 11, historical extirpations and at least one historical extinction. The number of snake species per island is 1–5, and species richness is correlated with island size and habitat diversity. Islands that harbour three or more species exhibit greater habitat diversity, are larger, have a higher maximum elevation, and are situated closer to the South American mainland, the source area for most genera. North of the Guadeloupe Archipelago, islands support one or two species (an Alsophis or an Alsophis and a Typhlops). From the Guadeloupe Archipelago southwards, snake faunas have species belonging to genera that are widespread on the Neotropical mainland: Boa, Corallus, Chironius, Clelia, Liophis, Mastigodryas and Bothrops. Between 50 and 75% of the Lesser Antillean snake fauna preys on Anolis lizards. Snake faunas in the Lesser Antilles are not saturated, and many islands could support additional species; fossil evidence and written records indicate that they did. The islands have a 5,000-year history of habitat alteration, but introduced predators probably have had the greatest negative impact on snakes. The potential establishment of an alien snake (e.g. Elaphe guttata) into the Lesser Antilles is a valid concern. Preventing additional introductions of alien predators and protecting satellite island populations of threatened species are the two most important mechanisms for snake conservation in the region.

We conducted a survey in the western Himalaya of India to assess animal extraction patterns. Data on animal species and their extraction patterns, their importance to the respondents, and reasons and methods of hunting were collected using structured questionnaires. Twenty-three species of large mammals and Galliformes were present in the area, 18 of which were hunted around at least one village. Of special concern were several threatened species that were hunted around most villages were they occurred, although the impact of removal on wild populations is not clear. The main reason for hunting was to supplement animal protein, although some animals were also killed for sale of meat and their parts. The establishment of community-managed forests has not had an impact on extraction rates. Assessment of the impact of hunting on the threatened species in particular is urgently required.

The Vulnerable Pampas meadowlark Sturnella defilippii (Family Icteridae) is a Neotropical grassland bird that suffered a severe population reduction and range contraction during the 20th century. Formerly distributed across most of the pampas grasslands, it is now confined to the southern tip of its original range. There are small groups of wintering birds in southern Brazil, a small reproductive population in eastern Uruguay, and the main reproductive population occurs on the southern pampas grasslands of Argentina. In this paper we report the results of an extensive field survey of these southern pampas grasslands, carried out to estimate the pampas meadowlark's population size and to identify the factors potentially responsible for its range contraction. During the 1999 breeding season we surveyed a total of 296 sample locations (transects, randomly selected points, and sites checked for nesting site reoccupation). We found 66 reproductive groups of pampas meadowlarks. The minimum population size and extent of occurrence were estimated to be 28,000 individuals and 4,810 km2, respectively. This value represents a range contraction of c. 30% compared to that estimated in a study carried out between 1992 and 1996. Pampas meadowlarks reoccupied natural grassland sites for nesting that were used in previous breeding seasons when these sites remained undisturbed. Habitat transformation appears to be the main factor causing the range contraction of the pampas meadowlark. We suggest that long-term monitoring of this population and its preferred habitat, the natural grasslands, is required in order to ensure the conservation of this species.

Sea moths (family Pegasidae) are little-studied benthic fish, found throughout the Indo-Pacific. Two species of sea moths, Pegasus volitans and Eurypegasus draconis, are caught incidentally in illegal trawl gear in the Philippines and sold into the dried fish trade. Approximately 130,000–620,000 P. volitans and 130,000 E. draconis were landed off north-western Bohol alone in 1996. An additional 43,000–62,000 sea moths (predominantly P. volitans) were caught live for the aquarium trade. Catch per unit effort for P. volitans was double that of E. draconis, probably because of its occurrence in shallower waters where fishing effort was concentrated. Sea moths may be unsuited for heavy exploitation as they occur at low densities. Moreover, a female-biased catch could lower the effective population size, given the reported monogamy amongst sea moths. No population data were available for a complete conservation assessment, although divers surveyed did report declines in their abundance.

The Critically Endangered mangrove finch Cactospiza (=Camarhynchus) heliobates is now confined to Isabela Island in the Galápagos Islands and is exclusively found in mangrove forests. Formerly it occurred also on neighbouring Fernandina Island, but is apparently extinct there. The population size and ecology of the species was relatively unknown until 1994. We conducted surveys, habitat assessments and behavioural observations of the species between 1996 and 2000. Although Isabela Island has approximately 760 ha of mangrove forests, breeding was confirmed at only two sites, comprising 32 ha in total, on the north-western coast. Our estimate of the population in these two areas is 100 individuals. Additionally, 3–5 territories (which probably contained breeding individuals) were discovered on the south-eastern coast. A comparison of habitat parameters showed that tree height and amount of dead wood were significantly higher within than outside territories, and these are therefore likely to be important habitat components for this species. As considerable structural differences were detected between the two sites holding the main populations and all other mangrove stands on Isabela, it seems possible that the latter are sub-optimal habitat. We therefore conclude that one of the reasons for the very limited distribution of the species is habitat degradation caused by hitherto unknown factors.

We assessed the distribution and relative abundance of mammals in two rainforest areas, Brahmagiri-Makut and Sirsi-Honnavara, of the Western Ghats, southern India, from November 2001 to April 2002. Both direct (daytime and night-time wildlife sightings through ‘recky’ walks) and indirect (wildlife signs and local information) methods were employed. A total of 34–35 species, of which we recorded 31–32, are known from the two areas; 14 are in one of the IUCN Red List threatened categories and six are endemic to India. Ecological factors account for the distribution and relative abundance of only three species (Nilgiri langur Semnopithecus johnii, lion-tailed macaque Macaca silenus and Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus). Ten other large species of mammals were more common in Sirsi-Honnavara than in Brahmagiri-Makut, whereas most of nine smaller species were generally more common in Brahmagiri-Makut. These differences can be attributed to different hunting practices rather than to ecological or biogeographical factors. In Brahmagiri-Makut the mainly daytime hunting using guns has the greatest impact on large diurnal mammals, whereas in Sirsi-Honnavara the mostly night-time hunting with traps, and avoidance of primates, has a greater effect on small nocturnal mammals. Brahmagiri-Makut is one of the few areas in the Western Ghats where all of the primate species of southern India can still be found, but the area does not receive any official protection. In Sirsi-Honnavara encroachment of agriculture is a regular practice, and the remaining forests exist only as a network of narrow strips.

Determining habitat requirements for threatened primates is critical to implementing conservation strategies, and plans incorporating metapopulation structure require understanding the potential of available habitats to serve as corridors. We examined how three groups of golden-headed lion tamarins Leontopithecus chrysomelas in Southern Bahia, Brazil, used mature, swamp, secondary and shade cocoa (cabruca) forests. Unlike callitrichids that show affinities for degraded forest, Leontopithecus species are presumed to depend on primary or mature forests for sleeping sites in tree holes and epiphytic bromeliads for animal prey. In this study we quantified resource availability within each habitat, compared the proportion of time spent in each habitat to that based on availability, investigated preferences for sleeping site selection, and determined how golden-headed lion tamarins allocated time to foraging behaviour in different habitats. Each group preferred to range in certain habitats during the day, yet patterns were not consistent across groups. In contrast, all groups preferred to sleep in mature or cabruca forest. Golden-headed lion tamarins spent a greater proportion of time foraging and eating fruits, flowers and nectar in cabruca than in mature or secondary forests. Although the extent to which secondary and cabruca forests can completely sustain breeding groups is unresolved, we conclude that both habitats would make suitable corridors for the movement of tamarins between forest fragments, and that the large trees remaining in cabruca are important sources of food and sleeping sites. We suggest that management plans for golden-headed lion tamarins should focus on protecting areas that include access to tall forest, either as mature or cabruca, for the long-term conservation of the species.

Faunal surveys in Kalimantan have been biased towards primates in protected forests close to the coast. Relatively little has been documented on other animal species, particularly in the vast interior forests. The results of a 1996–97 census of nine large mammal and eight hornbill species in tropical lowland forest in Barito Ulu, Central Kalimantan are reported here. Pigs Sus barbatus had the highest biomass, but this was due to large numbers migrating through the study area over 4 months and the resident population is probably low. Langurs Presbytis rubicunda and hybrid gibbons Hylobates mulleri × agilis had the highest biomass of all resident species. Orang-utans Pongo pygmaeus were absent from the area during the study period and pig-tailed macaques Macaca nemestrina were rarely seen. The resident hornbill species (Anthracoceros malayanus, Anorrhinus galeritus, Buceros vigil and B. rhinoceros) had high densities compared to that reported from lowland areas, but overall hornbill density was low due to the absence of the nomadic Aceros corrugatus and A. undulatus, except during peak fruit abundance. Sun bears Helarctos malayanus, long-tailed macaques M. fascicularis, muntjacs Muntiacus spp. and mouse deer Tragulus spp. were at low densities. Density of two large squirrel species, Ratufa affinis and Sundasciurus hippiurus, was lower than has been reported in Sarawak, but the density of Prevost's squirrel Callosciurus prevostii was higher. We discuss hunting pressure, isolation, low abundance of large fruit trees, poor soils, and specific habitat preferences as possible explanations for the low mammal and hornbill density at Barito Ulu.

Big-leaf mahogany Swietenia macrophylla King (Meliaceae) is the premier timber species of Latin America. A lack of law enforcement allows widespread illegal logging, and its unsustainable harvest depletes local stocks, necessitating a shift in sources of supply. To better control this exploitation, parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) recently elected to list mahogany on Appendix II. This listing requires exporting countries to verify that each shipment was legally acquired and its harvest was non-detrimental to the survival of mahogany. The CITES listing poses considerable challenges: 1) there is no precedent, as mahogany is the first commonly traded timber species listed on Appendix II, and 2) given current, unsustainable logging practices, CITES regulations will be difficult to implement. This paper synthesizes information on the conservation and management of mahogany that informed the listing decision, and provides recommendations for implementation, including timber tracking to ensure legality.

Introduced mammals are a major driver of extinction and ecosystem change, particularly on islands. Feral goats Capra hircus have been introduced to numerous islands worldwide and have had wholesale impacts on ecosystems. Techniques are now available, however, to eradicate goat populations from islands, providing a powerful conservation tool. Goats were removed from Pinta Island, Galápagos, Ecuador after a 30-year eradication campaign, the largest removal of an insular goat population using ground-based methods. Over 41,000 goats were removed during the initial hunting effort (1971–82). In the following decade the island was twice wrongly declared free of goats. During this period, the island was visited irregularly but no monitoring programme was implemented. A revised campaign over 1999–2003, which included improved hunting techniques and monitoring, removed the final goats from the island. The use of Judas goats was critical in locating the remaining goats and as a tool to confirm eradication. A systematic monitoring programme is critical for confirming eradication and preventing future reintroductions. An earlier monitoring programme would probably have resulted in earlier eradication and significant financial savings. Given limited resources, island conservation programmes elsewhere should strive to increase eradication efficiency and learn from past campaigns.

In order to describe the resting and pupping habitat of the Critically Endangered Mediterranean monk seal Monachus monachus and facilitate the identification of preferences by the species for suitable habitat for resting and pupping, 94 sea caves in the archipelago of Madeira were located, charted, and categorized using six characteristics. A cluster analysis indicated that there are eight different types of cave, in three groups. Observations of cave usage indicate that monk seals in the archipelago do not appear to exhibit a preference for certain cave types for resting. When taking care of young, however, the species appears to prefer sea caves that have beaches above sea level during high tide and long entrance corridors. Based on these preferences we believe that although there is a large number of caves in the area that are suitable for resting, only 16 (17%) of the caves are suitable for pupping. The survival of the Critically Endangered Mediterranean monk seal will depend on the allocation of sufficient suitable habitat for reproduction.

The white-winged guan Penelope albipennis (Aves, Cracidae) is a Critically Endangered bird endemic to northern Peru. We surveyed a protected area suitable for its reintroduction north of the species' current range. Following IUCN guidelines, four factors were evaluated: diversity and quantity of plant species that are part of the white-winged guan's diet, year-round water sources, resting and roosting cover, and extent of undisturbed forest. Several suitable small valleys or quebradas were inspected, but our evaluation focused on three. We identified all shrub and tree species to compare with habitat currently used by the guan. Cover for nesting places was assessed visually. We found species composition and microhabitat types to be similar to habitat presently used by wild guans. Thus, all habitat components are favourable for reintroduction. The high degree of protection of the area makes it particularly suitable as a reintroduction site. We recommend experimental extension of the species current range to mitigate the risk of extinction posed by catastrophic events.

Sustained and effective biodiversity conservation in a developing country such as Nepal is faced with the increasing pressure that the growing population exerts on the country's natural resources. Nepal has adopted a community-based approach to conservation management, including sharing of revenues from protected areas with local people living in the buffer zones around protected areas. The aim is to mitigate conflicts. This paper discusses the evolution of conservation policy for buffer zones in Nepal. The strengths and weaknesses of buffer zone policy are analysed, and the efforts to put policy into practice are examined and discussed. The analysis of buffer zone initiatives reveals that there are inconsistencies between the vision of the programme and its policies and practices. For better integration of conservation and development objectives, empowerment and equity in benefit sharing and gender issues need to be adequately incorporated in buffer zone policy and programme implementation.

A case study is given of a conservation management planning exercise underway in Cat Tien National Park and its surrounding areas in southern Vietnam. The importance of reliable information in this process is demonstrated using the Park's mammalian diversity. Opportunities and constraints to engage the local communities in conservation management planning and implementation are reviewed. The spatial element in protected area management planning is stressed; in some areas strict preservation management regimes are needed to conserve critical biodiversity values while in other areas conservation benefits could be gained from engaging local communities in resource management. Pragmatic conservation management planning decisions address identified threats, to be resolved by re-demarcation of boundaries, resettlement of people, and community-based conservation initiatives. These should result in a more viable Park as well as provide more secure livelihood conditions for the people elsewhere. This case study is put in the context of the wider conservation management debate.

Concentrations of large numbers of endemic species have been singled out in prioritization exercises as significant areas for global biodiversity conservation. This paper describes bird and mammal endemicity in Indo-Pacific ecoregions. An ecoregion is a relatively large unit of land or water that contains a distinct assemblage of natural communities. We prioritize 133 ecoregions according to their levels of endemicity, and explain how variables such as biome type, whether the ecoregion is on an island or continental mass, montane or non-montane, correlate with the proportion of the total species assemblage that are endemic. Following an exploratory principal components analysis we classify all ecoregions according to the relationship between numbers of endemics and overall species richness. Endemicity is negatively correlated with species richness. We show that plotting the logit transformation of the endemicity of birds and mammals against log of species richness is a more effective and useful way of identifying important ecoregions than simply ordering ecoregions by the proportion of endemic species, or any other single measure. The plot, divided into 16 regions corresponding to the quartiles of the two variables, was used to identify ecoregions of high conservation value. These are the ecoregions with the highest endemicity and lowest species richness. Further analysis shows that island and montane ecoregions, regardless of their biome type, are by far the most important for endemic species.

The Chinese giant salamander Andrias davidianus is the largest living amphibian. Most wild populations are threatened and some are already extinct. The Chinese government has declared the species a Class II Protected Species, and it is listed as Critically Endangered in the Chinese Red Book of Amphibians and Reptiles and as Data Deficient on the IUCN Red List. Populations of the species have declined sharply in both range and number since the 1950s because of habitat loss and fragmentation, and hunting for the commercial luxury food trade. Remaining populations appear to be distributed in 12 areas across 17 provinces in the mountainous areas of the middle Yangtze, Yellow and Pearl Rivers. Since the 1980s, 14 nature reserves, with a total area of more than 355,000 ha, have been established for the conservation of the Chinese giant salamander. We carried out habitat and questionnaire surveys for the species in 13 locations, and based on the results and on the little amount of published information, most of it in Chinese, we assess the current status of the species and make recommendations for its conservation management. Conservation of the Chinese giant salamander should be given a high priority and considered an important part of wetland management.

Prior to the last two decades of conflict, Afghanistan's Wakhan Corridor was considered an important area for conservation of the wildlife of high altitudes. We conducted an assessment of the status of large mammals in Wakhan after 22 years of conflict, and also made a preliminary assessment of wildlife trade in the markets of Kabul, Faizabad and Ishkashem. The survey confirmed the continued occurrence of at least eight species of large mammals in Wakhan, of which the snow leopard Uncia uncia and Marco Polo sheep Ovis ammon are globally threatened. We found evidence of human-wildlife conflict in Wakhan due to livestock depredation by snow leopard and wolf Canis lupus. Large mammals are hunted for meat, sport, fur, and in retaliation against livestock depredation. The fur trade in Kabul is a threat to the snow leopard, wolf, lynx Lynx lynx and common leopard Panthera pardus.

The Hainan black-crested gibbon Nomascus sp. cf. nasutus hainanus is on the verge of extinction. Following studies in the late 1980s and early 1990s only limited observations were made of the remaining population in the Bawangling National Nature Reserve on Hainan Island, China, and the most optimistic estimation of the population size was 23 individuals. To determine the present status of this gibbon, we surveyed the western part of the Reserve, from where the gibbons were previously known, using transects (November–December 2001), listening post (February–April 2002) and interviews with reserve staff (November–December 2001 and February–April 2002). Three groups of gibbons were sighted comprising at least 10–12 individuals including juveniles and infants. A fourth group, possibly comprising 2–7 individuals, was heard but not seen. Compared to an unpublished survey by reserve staff in 2000, the population appears to have decreased. Surveying of this gibbon population will continue, in particular to determine the composition of the one group that was heard but not seen and to carry out a survey of the eastern part of the Reserve to determine whether or not any gibbons survive there. The Forestry Bureau of Hainan is applying to the Central Government for an enlargement of the area of the reserve and more staff to help prevent illegal poaching and logging.

The conservation significance of the Caribbean island of Anegada in the British Virgin Islands is highlighted in this study of the distribution of plant species in two major habitats, sand dunes and limestone pavement. In 104 plots along 27 transects located around the western salt ponds of the Anegada Ramsar site, 133 plant species were recorded, including five regional endemics. The limestone pavement supported large populations of Acacia anegadensis, endemic to Anegada, and Cordia rupicola, known only from Anegada and Puerto Rico (although the Puerto Rican population is thought to be extirpated). The sand dunes supported a large population of Metastelma anegadense, also endemic to Anegada. Two other regional endemics were recorded within the limestone cays, Leptocereus quadricostatus, previously known from only one locality in Puerto Rico and Malpighia woodburyana, restricted to a few small populations on islands on the Puerto Rican Bank. For both of these species Anegada supports the largest known individual population.