Management of wildlife use by communities living a partially traditional lifestyle is usually more successful when the interactions between those communities and the environment are well understood. We mapped the harvest areas for the Vulnerable pig-nosed turtle Carettochelys insculpta for six language-groups in the Kikori region of Papua New Guinea and compared harvest parameters between different areas and language-groups and, when possible, between 1980–1982 and 2007–2009. Spatially, the main influence on harvest method was a tribe's location relative to the turtle's distribution. No small juveniles (< 20 cm straight-line carapace length) were found outside the Kikori delta, which is probably the species’ feeding grounds. In contrast, nesting females were captured only in upstream and coastal sandbank areas. Temporally there were distinct differences in harvesting parameters between tribes, which may be explained by differential employment opportunities. To halt the decline of pig-nosed turtles in the Kikori region we recommend the establishment of beach and feeding-ground protection initiatives, together with monitoring of the turtle population and harvest. Concomitantly, trips specifically targeted at harvesting the turtles, which account for 81% of the animals captured, need to be restricted. These initiatives should include all six language-groups and take into account their specific harvesting patterns.

Protected areas in developing tropical countries are under pressure from local demand for resources, and therefore it is essential to monitor rare species and prevent overexploitation of resources. The Travancore tortoise Indotestudo travancorica is endemic to the Western Ghats in southern India, where it inhabits deciduous and evergreen forests. We used multiple-season models to estimate site occupancy and detection probability for the tortoise in two protected areas, and investigated factors influencing this. During 2006–2009 we surveyed 25 trails in four forest types and estimated that the tortoise occupied 41–97% of the habitat. Tortoise presence on the trails was confirmed by sightings of 39 tortoises and 61 instances of indirect evidence of tortoises. There was considerable interannual variation in both direct and indirect evidence of tortoise presence. Although grass marshes represented only a small fraction of the protected areas, they constituted an important foraging ground for the tortoise and should be a focal point for monitoring and protection measures. Human-inhabited enclaves within the protected areas, and consequent furtive hunting, had a negative effect on occupancy by the tortoise, and therefore protected area management should include educating local communities and involving them in monitoring and protecting the species.

The beaches of Jaragua National Park in the Dominican Republic are the country's last known major nesting site for the leatherback marine turtle Dermochelys coriacea. This nesting aggregation is threatened by widespread illegal egg take, and clutch relocation and artificial incubation have been carried out as protection measures since 1974. We assess the efficacy of such efforts and investigate how artificial incubation may be influencing the success and sex ratios of clutches. We compare hatching success, incubation duration and embryo mortality in in-situ clutches (n = 43) with those incubated artificially at sites in the east and west of the Park (n = 35 and n = 31, respectively). Our results show that in the west, artificial incubation significantly decreases hatching success in clutches. In the east the duration of incubation is increased, which we predict would result in an increase in the number of males from these clutches. Clutch relocation is currently the only viable conservation option for clutches on eastern beaches because of illegal egg take but action is needed to ensure that the natural sex ratio is not distorted. However, on the western beaches in situ clutch incubation seems possible through beach protection. Further community engagement and enforcement are required to improve conservation measures at eastern beaches if long-term, less sustainable intervention is to be avoided.

Livestock depredation has implications for conservation and agronomy; it can be costly for farmers and can prompt retaliatory killing of carnivores. Lethal control measures are readily available and are reportedly perceived to be cheaper, more practical and more effective than non-lethal methods. However, the costs and efficacy of lethal vs non-lethal approaches have rarely been compared formally. We conducted a 3-year study on 11 South African livestock farms, examining costs and benefits of lethal and non-lethal conflict mitigation methods. Farmers used existing lethal control in the first year and switched to guardian animals (dogs Canis familiaris and alpacas Lama pacos) or livestock protection collars for the following 2 years. During the first year the mean cost of livestock protection was USD 3.30 per head of stock and the mean cost of depredation was USD 20.11 per head of stock. In the first year of non-lethal control the combined implementation and running costs were similar to those of lethal control (USD 3.08 per head). However, the mean cost of depredation decreased by 69.3%, to USD 6.52 per head. In the second year of non-lethal control the running costs (USD 0.43 per head) were significantly lower than in previous years and depredation costs decreased further, to USD 5.49 per head. Our results suggest that non-lethal methods of human–wildlife conflict mitigation can reduce depredation and can be economically advantageous compared to lethal methods of predator control.

Effective conservation of rare plant species requires a detailed understanding of their unique distributions and habitat requirements to identify conservation targets. Research suggests that local conservation efforts may be one of the best means for accomplishing this task. We conducted a geographical analysis of the local distributions of rare plants in Napa County, California, to identify spatial relationships with individual habitat types. We measured the potential contribution of individual habitats to rare plant conservation by integrating analyses on overall diversity, species per area, specificity-weighted richness, presence of hotspots, and the composition of the rare plant community in each habitat type. This combination of analyses allowed us to determine which habitats are most significant for rare plant conservation at a local scale. Our analyses indicated that several habitat types were consistently associated with rare plant species. In broad terms, grasslands, oak forests, coniferous forests, wetlands, serpentines, chaparral, and rock outcrops were most consistently highlighted. No single habitat stood out in every analysis however, and therefore we conclude that careful selection of an assemblage of habitats that best represents diverse, restricted and unique rare plant communities will be the most efficient approach to protecting rare plant habitat at local scales. Accordingly we present a means of identifying conservation targets and protecting global biodiversity through local efforts.

The Nubian dragon tree Dracaena ombet, which is categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, is found on the highest slopes of Gebel Elba National Park in Egypt, with scattered populations in Sudan, Djibouti, Ethiopia and Somalia. The Gebel Elba population is threatened by drought. Surveys were conducted in the Park to assess the condition and document the distribution of the species to prepare a baseline for conservation efforts. Eight sites were surveyed during 2007–2009: trees were tagged and their locations were recorded using a global positioning system, and tree density, diameter at breast height and population status were estimated. Of 353 trees recorded only 46% (161 individuals) were alive and only 27% (96 individuals) were in a healthy condition. Only 1% (2 individuals) were young trees, indicating a low regeneration level. Field-based observations suggest that 80% of the D. ombet population in Gebel Elba may soon be extinct. A conservation action plan is needed for this flagship species in Egypt and throughout its range.

Liberia has the largest blocks of continuous forest in West Africa, providing habitat for numerous wildlife species. However, there is a lack of empirical data about the status of Liberia's wildlife populations. During 2010–2012 we conducted the first nationwide survey in Liberia along c. 320 km of systematically located transect lines to estimate the abundance of chimpanzees Pan troglodytes verus, the diversity of large mammals and the nature and degree of anthropogenic threats. With > 7,000 chimpanzees, Liberia is home to the second largest population of West African chimpanzees and is therefore a priority for conservation of the species. Compared to the fragmented populations in other range countries the Liberian population is potentially one of the most viable. Our study revealed that the majority of chimpanzees and some of the most species-diverse mammal communities in Liberia exist outside protected areas. High hunting rates and plans for large-scale exploitation of natural resources necessitate rapid implementation of effective strategies to ensure the protection of one of West Africa's last strongholds for chimpanzees and other rare and threatened mammal species. We provide a country-wide baseline dataset that may serve as a platform for Liberian wildlife authorities, policy-makers and international conservation agencies to make informed decisions about the location and delineation of proposed protected areas, to identify conservation gaps and to devise a conservation action plan to conserve Liberia's wildlife resources.

The black-and-white snub-nosed monkey Rhinopithecus bieti is endemic to China, where its population is fragmented into 15 isolated groups and threatened despite efforts to protect the species. Here we analyse possible habitat connectivity between the groups reported in Yunnan, using genetic, least-cost path and Euclidean distances. We detect genetic isolation between the northern and southern groups but not among the northern groups. We show that genetic distance is better explained by human disturbance and land-cover least-cost paths than by Euclidian distance. High-quality habitats were found to be more fragmented in the southern part of the study area and interspersed with human-influenced areas unsuitable for black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys, which may explain the genetic isolation of the southern groups. Potential corridors are identified based on the least-cost path analysis, and seven sensitive areas are proposed for restoration. We recommend (1) that restoration is focused on the current range of the monkeys, with efforts to reduce human disturbance and human population pressure and increase public awareness, and (2) the development of a long-term plan for habitat restoration and corridor design in the areas between groups.

Kumbira Forest is the best representative area of Angola's Central Escarpment and the only site known to hold significant populations of four of the five threatened endemic bird species of this habitat. However, the forest is disappearing as a result of human activities. Remote-sensing techniques were used to assess changes in forest cover, and bird and habitat surveys were performed to assess the effect of land-use changes on endemic species and the bird community. No relationships could be established between the presence of endemics and habitat and landscape variables. This lack of effect may be attributable to the low number of records and compounded by the mosaic structure of the landscape. Although forest cover has been maintained in Kumbira, old-growth forest has been replaced by secondary growth in many areas. Nevertheless these secondary-growth forest patches can maintain a bird community similar to that found in old-growth forest.

Nominally protected areas in Papua are under threat from encroachment, logging and hunting. The northern cassowary Casuarius unappendiculatus is the largest frugivore of the lowland rainforest of New Guinea and is endemic to this region, and therefore it is an important conservation target and a potential flagship species. We investigated effects of habitat degradation on the species by means of distance sampling surveys of 58 line transects across five distinct habitats, from primary forest to forest gardens. Estimated cassowary densities ranged from 14.1 (95% CI 9.2–21.4) birds km−2 in primary forest to 1.4 (95% CI 0.4–5.6) birds km−2 in forest garden. Density estimates were intermediate in unlogged but hunted natural forest and in > 30 year-old secondary forest, and considerably lower in recently logged (< 3 years) forest. Cassowary abundance was positively correlated with canopy cover and with tree height and diameter, and negatively correlated with hunting traps and human trails. In generalized linear models cassowary abundance was best explained by the number of fruiting trees and potential water sources. The results suggest that although the northern cassowary is moderately tolerant of intermediate disturbance it is relatively intolerant of heavy disturbance such as intensive logging. To secure the populations of northern cassowary and of other large animal species in Papua, forest degradation needs to be addressed by enforcing regulations in existing protection forest and/or establishing new protected areas, such as wildlife reserves.

Conservation efforts use scientific data to provide an adaptive framework wherein habitat and wildlife sustainability can co-exist with human activities. Good science informs decision-makers and facilitates the development of successful conservation approaches. However, conservation concerns for the dugong Dugong dugon in South-east Asia are sufficiently urgent that action must be taken quickly, even though science has not provided complete answers to critical questions. In Johor, Malaysia, aerial surveys were conducted to assess dugong numbers, dugong high-use areas and overlap of dugong sightings with areas of seagrass. Dugong distribution included existing marine parks and locations where known conservation threats exist. We conclude that the Johor islands may represent a significant congregation site for dugongs in Peninsular Malaysia, with as many as 20 dugongs recorded in a single day. The existence of a marine park where the dugong sightings were most prominent is encouraging but only 38% of those sightings fell within the boundaries of the park. Anthropogenic threats need to be assessed and addressed prior to complex development activities such as dredging and coastal reclamation for tourism development in this critical area. We use this case to explore the concept of advancing species conservation through focused research and management, particularly where uncertainties exist because data are scarce.