Cultures of Schwann cells from neonatal rat sciatic nerves were treated with acetylcholine agonists and the effects on cell proliferation evaluated. 3[H]-thymidine incorporation shows that acetylcholine (ACh) receptor agonists inhibit cell proliferation, and FACS analysis demonstrates cell-cycle arrest and accumulation of cells in the G1 phase. The use of arecaidine, a selective agonist of muscarinic M2 receptors reveals that this effect depends mainly on M2 receptor activation. The arecaidine dependent-block in G1 is reversible because removal of arecaidine from the culture medium induces progression to the S phase. The block of the G1-S transition is also characterized by modulation of the expression of several cell-cycle markers. Moreover, treatment with ACh receptor agonist causes both a decrease in the PCNA protein levels in Schwann cell nuclei and an increase in p27 and p53 proteins. Finally, immuno-electron microscopy demonstrates that M2 receptors are expressed by Schwann cells in vivo. These results indicate that ACh, by modulating Schwann cell proliferation through M2 receptor activation, might contribute to their progression to a more differentiated phenotype.

Glial contributions to the functioning nervous system are now recognized widely. This was not always so. What follows is an account of the several mid-20th century events that led to the explicit proposition that glia and neurons collaborate in the production of behavioral responses.

It has been proposed that astrocytes should no longer be viewed purely as support cells for neurons, such as providing a constant environment and metabolic substrates, but that they should also be viewed as being involved in affecting synaptic activity in an active way and, therefore, an integral part of the information-processing properties of the brain. This essay discusses the possible differences between a support and an instructive role, and concludes that any distinction has to be blurred. In view of this, and a brief overview of the nature of the data, the new evidence seems insufficient to conclude that the physiological roles of mature astrocytes go beyond a general support role. I propose a model of mature protoplasmic astrocyte function that is drawn from the most recent data on their structure, the domain concept and their syncytial characteristics, of an independent rather than integrative functioning of the ends of each process where the activities that affect synaptic activity and blood vessel diameter will be concentrated.

Both neurons and glia of the PNS are derived from the neural crest. In this study, we have examined the potential function of lunatic fringe in neural tube and trunk neural crest development by gain-of-function analysis during early stages of nervous system formation. Normally lunatic fringe is expressed in three broad bands within the neural tube, and is most prominent in the dorsal neural tube containing neural crest precursors. Using retrovirally-mediated gene transfer, we find that excess lunatic fringe in the neural tube increases the numbers of neural crest cells in the migratory stream via an apparent increase in cell proliferation. In addition, lunatic fringe augments the numbers of neurons and upregulates Delta-1 expression. The results indicate that, by modulating Notch/Delta signaling, lunatic fringe not only increases cell division of neural crest precursors, but also increases the numbers of neurons in the trunk neural crest.

One of the most challenging issues in developmental biology is to understand how cell diversity is generated. The Drosophila nervous system provides a model of choice for unraveling this process. First, many neural stem cells and lineages have been identified. Second, major molecular pathways involved in neural development and associated mutations have been characterized extensively in recent years. In this review, we focus on the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the generation of glia. This cell population relies on the expression of gcm fate determinant, which is necessary and sufficient to induce glial differentiation. We also discuss the recently identified role of gcm genes in Drosophila melanogaster and vertebrate neurogenesis. Finally, we will consider the Gcm pathway in the context of neural stem cell differentiation.

Glutamate is the principal excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS, but it is also a potent neurotoxin that can kill nerve cells. Glutamate damages oligodendrocytes, like neurons, by excitotoxicity which is caused by sustained activation of AMPA, kainate and NMDA receptors. Glutamate excitotoxicity depends entirely on Ca2+ overload of the cytoplasm and can be initiated by disruption of glutamate homeostasis. Thus, inhibition of glutamate uptake in isolated oligodendrocytes in vitro and in the optic nerve in vivo, is sufficient to trigger cell death which is prevented by glutamate receptor antagonists. In turn, activated, but not resting microglia, can compromise glutamate homeostasis and induce oligodendrocyte excitotoxicity, which is attenuated either by AMPA/kainate antagonists or by the blockade of the system xc_ antiporter present in microglia. By contrast, non-lethal, brief, activation of glutamate receptors in oligodendrocytes rapidly sensitizes these cells to complement attack. Intriguingly, these effects are exclusively mediated by kainate receptors which induce Ca2+ overload of the cytosol and the generation of reactive oxygen species. In conjunction, these observations reveal novel mechanisms by which neuroinflammation alters glutamate homeostasis and triggers oligodendrocyte death. Conversely, they also show how glutamate signaling in oligodendrocytes might induce immune attack. In both instances direct activation of glutamate receptors present in oligodendrocytes plays a pivotal role in either initiating or executing death signals, which might be relevant to the pathogenesis of white matter disorders.

In the developing nervous system, building a functional neuronal network relies on coordinating the formation, specification and survival to diverse neuronal and glial cell subtypes. The establishment of neuronal connections further depends on sequential neuron–neuron and neuron–glia interactions that regulate cell-migration patterns and axon guidance. The visual system of Drosophila has a highly regular, retinotopic organization into reiterated interconnected synaptic circuits. It is therefore an excellent invertebrate model to investigate basic cellular strategies and molecular determinants regulating the different developmental processes that lead to network formation. Studies in the visual system have provided important insights into the mechanisms by which photoreceptor axons connect with their synaptic partners within the optic lobe. In this review, we highlight that this system is also well suited for uncovering general principles that underlie glial cell biology. We describe the glial cell subtypes in the visual system and discuss recent findings about their development and migration. Finally, we outline the pivotal roles of glial cells in mediating neural circuit assembly, boundary formation, neural proliferation and survival, as well as synaptic function.

Recent studies have implicated glial cells in novel physiological roles in the CNS, such as modulation of synaptic transmission, so it is possible that glial cells might have a functional role in the hyperexcitability that is characteristic of epilepsy. Indeed, alterations in distinct astrocyte membrane channels, receptors and transporters have all been associated with the epileptic state. This paper focuses on the potential roles of the glial water channel aquaporin-4 (AQP4) in modulating brain excitability and in epilepsy. We review studies of seizure phenotypes, K+ homeostasis and extracellular space physiology of mice that lack AQP4 (AQP4−/− mice) and discuss the human studies demonstrating alterations of AQP4 in specimens of human epilepsy tissue. We conclude with new studies of AQP4 regulation by seizures and discuss its potential role in the development of epilepsy (epileptogenesis). Although many questions remain unanswered, the available data indicate that AQP4 and its molecular partners might represent important new therapeutic targets.

We used an in vivo transplant approach to examine how adult Schwann cells and olfactory ensheathing glia OEG influence the specificity of axontarget cell interactions when they are introduced into the CNS. Populations of either Schwann cells or OEG were mixed with dissociated fetal tectal cells presumptive superior colliculus and, after reaggregation, pieces were grafted onto newborn rat superior colliculus. Both glial types were prelabeled with lentiviral vectors encoding green fluorescent protein. Grafts rapidly established fiber connections with the host and retinal projections into cografts were assessed 656 days posttransplantation by injecting cholera toxinB into host eyes. In control rats that received pure dissociatedreaggregated tectal grafts, retinal ganglion cell RGC axons selectively innervated defined target areas, corresponding to the retinorecipient layer in normal superior colliculus. The pattern of RGC axon ingrowth into OEG containing cografts was similar to that in control grafts. However, in Schwann cell cografts there was reduced host retinal input into presumptive target areas and many RGC axons were scattered throughout the neuropil. Given that OEG in cografts had minimal impact on axontarget cell recognition, OEG might be an appropriate cell type for direct transplantation into injured neuropil when attempting to stimulate specific pathway reconstruction.

The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a specialized tissue interface that provides an important homeostatic and immunosurveillance role in the CNS. Unlike most microvascular tissues, which readily promote paracellular passage of solutes and macromolecules, the BBB is more analogous to polarized mucosal epithelia that restrict such permeability in order to prevent disease onset. Recent transgenic ablation studies have demonstrated that the BBB and mucosal tissues also share a requirement for astroglial-regulated barrier integrity. This review highlights the emerging concept that astroglia regulate barrier function at markedly different tissue interfaces. It also explores possible lessons that might be learnt by adopting epithelial model paradigms of the BBB. For example, novel glial-derived S-nitrosylation signals that regulate intestinal permeability in the digestive tract might provide new mechanistic insights into the function of the BBB. A better understanding of such universal mechanisms for barrier regulation will facilitate novel therapeutic strategies that target permeability disorders at CNS and mucosal tissue interfaces.

Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)-secreting neurons in mammal's project principally to the median eminence-arcuate (ME-ARC) region where they make contact with basal lamina and open into the pericapillary space of the primary hypophyseal portal plexus. In the present study we report the expression of polysialylated form of neural cell adhesion molecule (PSA-NCAM) on the cell bodies of GnRH-secreting neurons and on glial cells in the medial preoptic area (mPOA) of the hypothalamus in both the proestrous and diestrous phases of cycling rats, using dual immunohistofluorescent staining. Regulation of PSA-NCAM occurs via regulation of PSA biosynthesis by the polysialyltransferase enzyme (PST-1). Therefore, we studied the expression of PST mRNA and GnRH in GnRH-releasing cell bodies by combining fluorescent in situ hybridization with immunohistofluorescence, and expression of PST mRNA in the mPOA using northern blotting. We observed dynamic upregulation of PSA-NCAM on GnRH cell bodies in the proestrous phase, accompanied by enhanced expression of PST-1 mRNA. The present results indicate that PSA-NCAM has a permissive role in the structural remodeling of GnRH neurons. Enhanced expression of mRNA encoding PST-1 in the proestrous phase indicates that the biosynthesis of PSA and, thus, PSA-NCAM is regulated at the transcriptional level.

In this review, we briefly summarize what is known about the properties of the three families of gap junction proteins, connexins, innexins and pannexins, emphasizing their importance as intercellular channels that provide ionic and metabolic coupling and as non-junctional channels that can function as a paracrine signaling pathway. We discuss that two distinct groups of proteins form gap junctions in deuterostomes (connexins) and protostomes (innexins), and that channels formed of the deuterostome homologues of innexins (pannexins) differ from connexin channels in terms of important structural features and activation properties. These differences indicate that the two families of gap junction proteins serve distinct, complementary functions in deuterostomes. In several tissues, including the CNS, both connexins and pannexins are involved in intercellular communication, but have different roles. Connexins mainly contribute by forming the intercellular gap junction channels, which provide for junctional coupling and define the communication compartments in the CNS. We also provide new data supporting the concept that pannexins form the non-junctional channels that play paracrine roles by releasing ATP and, thus, modulating the range of the intercellular Ca2+-wave transmission between astrocytes in culture.

Interactions between neurons and glial cells are crucial for nervous system development and function in all complex organisms, and many functional, morphological and molecular features of glia are well conserved among species. Here we review studies of the longitudinal glia (LG) in the Drosophila CNS. The LG envelop the neuropil in a membrane sheath, and have features resembling both oligodendrocytes and astrocytes. Because of their unique lineage, morphology and molecular features, the LG provide an excellent model to study the genetic mechanisms underlying glial subtype differentiation and diversity, glial morphogenesis and neuron–glial interactions during development. In addition, they are proving useful in understanding how glial cells maintain ion and neurotransmitter homeostasis and protect neurons from environmental insult.

One of the many obstacles to spinal cord repair following trauma is the formation of a cyst that impedes axonal regeneration. Accordingly, we examined the potential use of electrospinning to engineer an implantable polarized matrix for axonal guidance. Polydioxanone, a resorbable material, was electrospun to fabricate matrices possessing either aligned or randomly oriented fibers. To assess the extent to which fiber alignment influences directional neuritic outgrowth, rat dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) were cultured on these matrices for 10 days. Using confocal microscopy, neurites displayed a directional growth that mimicked the fiber alignment of the underlying matrix. Because these matrices are generated from a material that degrades with time, we next determined whether a glial substrate might provide a more stable interface between the resorbable matrix and the outgrowing axons. Astrocytes seeded onto either aligned or random matrices displayed a directional growth pattern similar to that of the underlying matrix. Moreover, these glia-seeded matrices, once co-cultured with DRGs, conferred the matrix alignment to and enhanced outgrowth exuberance of the extending neurites. These experiments demonstrate the potential for electrospinning to generate an aligned matrix that influences both the directionality and growth dynamics of DRG neurites.