Alternative and Augmentative Communication (AAC) for people with speech and language disorders is an interesting and challenging application field for research in Natural Language Processing. Further advances in the development of AAC systems require robust language processing techniques and versatile linguistic knowledge bases. Also NLP research can benefit from studying the techniques used in this field and from the user-centred methodologies used to develop and evaluate AAC systems. Until recently, however, apart from some exceptions, there was little scientific exchange between the two research areas. This paper aims to make a contribution to closing this gap. We will argue that current interest in language use, which can be shown by the large amount of research on comprehensive dictionaries and on corpora processing, makes the results of NLP research more relevant to AAC. We will also show that the increasing interest of AAC researchers in NLP is having positive results. To situate research on communication aids, the first half of this paper gives an overview of the AAC research field. The second half is dedicated to an overview of research prototype systems and commercially available communication aids that specifically involve more advanced language processing techniques.

Named Entity Recognition (NER) is an essential task for many natural language processing systems, which makes use of various linguistic resources. NER becomes more complicated when the language in use is morphologically rich and structurally complex, such as Arabic. This language has a set of characteristics that makes it particularly challenging to handle. In a previous work, we have proposed an Arabic NER system that follows the hybrid approach, i.e. integrates both rule-based and machine learning-based NER approaches. Our hybrid NER system is the state-of-the-art in Arabic NER according to its performance on standard evaluation datasets. In this article, we discuss a novel methodology for overcoming the coverage drawback of rule-based NER systems in order to improve their performance and allow for automated rule update. The presented mechanism utilizes the recognition decisions made by the hybrid NER system in order to identify the weaknesses of the rule-based component and derive new linguistic rules aiming at enhancing the rule base, which will help in achieving more reliable and accurate results. We used ACE 2004 Newswire standard dataset as a resource for extracting and analyzing new linguistic rules for person, location and organization names recognition. We formulate each new rule based on two distinctive feature groups, i.e. Gazetteers of each type of named entities and Part-of-Speech tags, in particular noun and proper noun. Fourteen new patterns are derived, formulated as grammar rules, and evaluated in terms of coverage. The conducted experiments exploit a POS tagged version of the ACE 2004 NW dataset. The empirical results show that the performance of the enhanced rule-based system, i.e. NERA 2.0, improves the coverage of the previously misclassified person, location and organization named entities types by 69.93 per cent, 57.09 per cent and 54.28 per cent, respectively.

Various Machine Learning (ML) approaches have been demonstrated to produce relatively successful Word Sense Disambiguation (WSD) systems. There are still unexplained differences among the performance measurements of different algorithms, hence it is warranted to deepen the investigation into which algorithm has the right ‘bias’ for this task. In this paper, we show that this is not easy to accomplish, due to intricate interactions between information sources, parameter settings, and properties of the training data. We investigate the impact of parameter optimization on generalization accuracy in a memory-based learning approach to English and Dutch WSD. A ‘word-expert’ architecture was adopted, yielding a set of classifiers, each specialized in one single wordform. The experts consist of multiple memory-based learning classifiers, each taking different information sources as input, combined in a voting scheme. We optimized the architectural and parametric settings for each individual word-expert by performing cross-validation experiments on the learning material. The results of these experiments show that the variation of both the algorithmic parameters and the information sources available to the classifiers leads to large fluctuations in accuracy. We demonstrate that optimization per word-expert leads to an overall significant improvement in the generalization accuracies of the produced WSD systems.

Classifier combination is an effective and broadly useful method of improving system performance. This article investigates in depth a large number of both well-established and novel classifier combination approaches for the word sense disambiguation task, studied over a diverse classifier pool which includes feature-enhanced Naïve Bayes, Cosine, Decision List, Transformation-based Learning and MMVC classifiers. Each classifier has access to the same rich feature space, comprised of distance weighted bag-of-lemmas, local ngram context and specific syntactic relations, such as Verb-Object and Noun-Modifier. This study examines several key issues in system combination for the word sense disambiguation task, ranging from algorithmic structure to parameter estimation. Experiments using the standard SENSEVAL2 lexical-sample data sets in four languages (English, Spanish, Swedish and Basque) demonstrate that the combination system obtains a significantly lower error rate when compared with other systems participating in the SENSEVAL2 exercise, yielding state-of-the-art performance on these data sets.

We report work on adding semantic role labels to the Chinese Treebank, a corpus already annotated with phrase structures. The work involves locating all verbs and their nominalizations in the corpus, and semi-automatically adding semantic role labels to their arguments, which are constituents in a parse tree. Although the same procedure is followed, different issues arise in the annotation of verbs and nominalized predicates. For verbs, identifying their arguments is generally straightforward given their syntactic structure in the Chinese Treebank as they tend to occupy well-defined syntactic positions. Our discussion focuses on the syntactic variations in the realization of the arguments as well as our approach to annotating dislocated and discontinuous arguments. In comparison, identifying the arguments for nominalized predicates is more challenging and we discuss criteria and procedures for distinguishing arguments from non-arguments. In particular we focus on the role of support verbs as well as the relevance of event/result distinctions in the annotation of the predicate-argument structure of nominalized predicates. We also present our approach to taking advantage of the syntactic structure in the Chinese Treebank to bootstrap the predicate-argument structure annotation of verbs. Finally, we discuss the creation of a lexical database of frame files and its role in guiding predicate-argument annotation. Procedures for ensuring annotation consistency and inter-annotator agreement evaluation results are also presented.

Social media are an emerging new paradigm in interdisciplinary research in crisis informatics. They bring many opportunities as well as challenges to all fields of application and research involved in the project of using social media content for an improved disaster management. Using the Central European flooding 2013 as our case study, we optimize and apply methods from the field of natural language processing and unsupervised machine learning to investigate the thematic and temporal structure of German social media communication. By means of topic model analysis, we will investigate which kind of content was shared on social media during the event. On this basis, we will, furthermore, investigate the development of topics over time and apply temporal clustering techniques to automatically identify different characteristic phases of communication. From the results, we, first, want to reveal properties of social media content and show what potential social media have for improving disaster management in Germany. Second, we will be concerned with the methodological issue of finding and adapting natural language processing methods that are suitable for analysing social media data in order to obtain information relevant for disaster management. With respect to the first, application-oriented focal point, our study reveals high potential of social media content in the factual, organizational and psychological dimension of the disaster and during all stages of the disaster management life cycle. Interestingly, there appear to be systematic differences in thematic profile between the different platforms Facebook and Twitter and between different stages of the event. In context of our methodological investigation, we claim that if topic model analysis is combined with appropriate optimization techniques, it shows high applicability for thematic and temporal social media analysis in disaster management.

In this paper, we present a new Deterministic Finite Automata (DFA) minimization algorithm. The algorithm is incremental – it may be halted at any time, yielding a partially-minimized automaton. All of the other (known) minimization algorithms have intermediate results which are not useable for partial minimization. Since the first algorithm is easily understood but inefficient, we consider three practical and effective optimizations. The first two optimizations do not affect the asymptotic worst-case running time – though they perform well on a large class of automata. The third optimization yields an quadratic-time algorithm which is competitive with the previously known ones.

This paper provides an analysis of several practical issues related to the theory and implementation of Grapheme-to-Phoneme (G2P) conversion systems utilizing the Weighted Finite-State Transducer paradigm. The paper addresses issues related to system accuracy, training time and practical implementation. The focus is on joint n-gram models which have proven to provide an excellent trade-off between system accuracy and training complexity. The paper argues in favor of simple, productive approaches to G2P, which favor a balance between training time, accuracy and model complexity. The paper also introduces the first instance of using joint sequence RnnLMs directly for G2P conversion, and achieves new state-of-the-art performance via ensemble methods combining RnnLMs and n-gram based models. In addition to detailed descriptions of the approach, minor yet novel implementation solutions, and experimental results, the paper introduces Phonetisaurus, a fully-functional, flexible, open-source, BSD-licensed G2P conversion toolkit, which leverages the OpenFst library. The work is intended to be accessible to a broad range of readers.

Authorship Analysis aims to extract information about the authorship of documents from features within those documents. Typically, this is performed as a classification task with the aim of identifying the author of a document, given a set of documents of known authorship. Alternatively, unsupervised methods have been developed primarily as visualisation tools to assist the manual discovery of clusters of authorship within a corpus by analysts. However, there is a need in many fields for more sophisticated unsupervised methods to automate the discovery, profiling and organisation of related information through clustering of documents by authorship. An automated and unsupervised methodology for clustering documents by authorship is proposed in this paper. The methodology is named NUANCE, for n-gram Unsupervised Automated Natural Cluster Ensemble. Testing indicates that the derived clusters have a strong correlation to the true authorship of unseen documents.

Authorship attribution methods aim to determine the author of a document, by using information gathered from a set of documents with known authors. One method of performing this task is to create profiles containing distinctive features known to be used by each author. In this paper, a new method of creating an author or document profile is presented that detects features considered distinctive, compared to normal language usage. This recentreing approach creates more accurate profiles than previous methods, as demonstrated empirically using a known corpus of authorship problems. This method, named recentred local profiles, determines authorship accurately using a simple ‘best matching author’ approach to classification, compared to other methods in the literature. The proposed method is shown to be more stable than related methods as parameter values change. Using a weighted voting scheme, recentred local profiles is shown to outperform other methods in authorship attribution, with an overall accuracy of 69.9% on the ad-hoc authorship attribution competition corpus, representing a significant improvement over related methods.

Automated writing assistance – a category that encompasses a variety of computer-based tools that help with writing – has been around in one form or another for 60 years, although it’s always been a relatively minor part of the NLP landscape. But the category has been given a substantial boost from recent advances in deep learning. We review some history, look at where things stand today, and consider where things might be going.

We examine correlations between dialogue behaviors and learning in tutoring, using two corpora of spoken tutoring dialogues: a human-human corpus and a human-computer corpus. To formalize the notion of dialogue behavior, we manually annotate our data using a tagset of student and tutor dialogue acts relative to the tutoring domain. A unigram analysis of our annotated data shows that student learning correlates both with the tutor's dialogue acts and with the student's dialogue acts. A bigram analysis shows that student learning also correlates with joint patterns of tutor and student dialogue acts. In particular, our human-computer results show that the presence of student utterances that display reasoning (whether correct or incorrect), as well as the presence of reasoning questions asked by the computer tutor, both positively correlate with learning. Our human-human results show that student introductions of a new concept into the dialogue positively correlates with learning, but student attempts at deeper reasoning (particularly when incorrect), and the human tutor's attempts to direct the dialogue, both negatively correlate with learning. These results suggest that while the use of dialogue act n-grams is a promising method for examining correlations between dialogue behavior and learning, specific findings can differ in human versus computer tutoring, with the latter better motivating adaptive strategies for implementation.

Textual question answering is a technique of extracting a sentence or text snippet from a document or document collection that responds directly to a query. Open-domain textual question answering presupposes that questions are natural and unrestricted with respect to topic. The question answering (Q/A) techniques, as embodied in today's systems, can be roughly divided into two types: (1) techniques for Information Seeking (IS), which localize the answer in vast document collections; and (2) techniques for Reading Comprehension (RC) that answer a series of questions related to a given document. Although these two types of techniques and systems are different, it is desirable to combine them for enabling more advanced forms of Q/A. This paper discusses an approach that successfully enhanced an existing IS system with RC capabilities. This enhancement is important because advanced Q/A, as exemplified by the ARDA AQUAINT program, is moving towards Q/A systems that incorporate semantic and pragmatic knowledge enabling dialogue-based Q/A. Because today's RC systems involve a short series of questions in context, they represent a rudimentary form of interactive Q/A which constitutes a possible foundation for more advanced forms of dialogue-based Q/A.

Lexical semantic classes of verbs play an important role in structuring complex predicate information in a lexicon, thereby avoiding redundancy and enabling generalizations across semantically similar verbs with respect to their usage. Such classes, however, require many person-years of expert effort to create manually, and methods are needed for automatically assigning verbs to appropriate classes. In this work, we develop and evaluate a feature space to support the automatic assignment of verbs into a well-known lexical semantic classification that is frequently used in natural language processing. The feature space is general – applicable to any class distinctions within the target classification; broad – tapping into a variety of semantic features of the classes; and inexpensive – requiring no more than a POS tagger and chunker. We perform experiments using support vector machines (SVMs) with the proposed feature space, demonstrating a reduction in error rate ranging from 48% to 88% over a chance baseline accuracy, across classification tasks of varying difficulty. In particular, we attain performance comparable to or better than that of feature sets manually selected for the particular tasks. Our results show that the approach is generally applicable, and reduces the need for resource-intensive linguistic analysis for each new classification task. We also perform a wide range of experiments to determine the most informative features in the feature space, finding that simple, easily extractable features suffice for good verb classification performance.

Robustness has been traditionally stressed as a general desirable property of any computational model and system. The human NL interpretation device exhibits this property as the ability to deal with odd sentences. However, the difficulties in a theoretical explanation of robustness within the linguistic modelling suggested the adoption of an empirical notion. In this paper, we propose an empirical definition of robustness based on the notion of performance. Furthermore, a framework for controlling the parser robustness in the design phase is presented. The control is achieved via the adoption of two principles: the modularisation, typical of the software engineering practice, and the availability of domain adaptable components. The methodology has been adopted for the production of CHAOS, a pool of syntactic modules, which has been used in real applications. This pool of modules enables a large validation of the notion of empirical robustness, on the one side, and of the design methodology, on the other side, over different corpora and two different languages (English and Italian).

We present a methodology for the extraction of narrative information from a large corpus. The key idea is to transform the corpus into a network, formed by linking the key actors and objects of the narration, and then to analyse this network to extract information about their relations. By representing information into a single network it is possible to infer relations between these entities, including when they have never been mentioned together. We discuss various types of information that can be extracted by our method, various ways to validate the information extracted and two different application scenarios. Our methodology is very scalable, and addresses specific research needs in social sciences.

Non-speaking people often rely on AAC (Augmentative and Alternative Communication) devices to assist them to communicate. These AAC devices are slow to operate, however, and as a result conversations can be very difficult and frequently break down. This is especially the case when the conversation partner is unfamiliar with this method of communication, and is a big obstacle to many people when they wish to conduct simple everyday transactions. A way of improving the performance of AAC devices by using scripts is discussed. A prototype system to test this idea was constructed, and a preliminary experiment performed with promising results. A practical AAC device which incorporates scripts was then developed, and is described.

We present a Weighted Finite State Transducer Translation Template Model for statistical machine translation. This is a source-channel model of translation inspired by the Alignment Template translation model. The model attempts to overcome the deficiencies of word-to-word translation models by considering phrases rather than words as units of translation. The approach we describe allows us to implement each constituent distribution of the model as a weighted finite state transducer or acceptor. We show that bitext word alignment and translation under the model can be performed with standard finite state machine operations involving these transducers. One of the benefits of using this framework is that it avoids the need to develop specialized search procedures, even for the generation of lattices or N-Best lists of bitext word alignments and translation hypotheses. We report and analyze bitext word alignment and translation performance on the Hansards French-English task and the FBIS Chinese-English task under the Alignment Error Rate, BLEU, NIST and Word Error-Rate metrics. These experiments identify the contribution of each of the model components to different aspects of alignment and translation performance. We finally discuss translation performance with large bitext training sets on the NIST 2004 Chinese-English and Arabic-English MT tasks.

Question answering systems retrieve information from documents in response to queries. Most of the questions are who- and what-type questions that deal with named entities. A less common and more challenging question to deal with is the why -question. In this paper, we introduce Lemaza (Arabic for why), a system for automatically answering why -questions for Arabic texts. The system is composed of four main components that make use of the Rhetorical Structure Theory. To evaluate Lemaza, we prepared a set of why -question–answer pairs whose answer can be found in a corpus that we compiled out of Open Source Arabic Corpora. Lemaza performed best when the stop-words were not removed. The performance measure was 72.7%, 79.2% and 78.7% for recall, precision and c@1, respectively.

For a given training corpus of parallel sentences, the quality of the output produced by a translation system relies heavily on the underlying similarity measurement criteria. A phrase-based machine translation system derives its output through a generative process using a Phrase Table comprising source and target language phrases. As a consequence, the more effective the Phrase Table is, in terms of its size and the output that may be derived out of it, the better is the expected outcome of the underlying translation system. However, finding the most similar phrase(s) from a given training corpus that can help generate a good quality translation poses a serious challenge. In practice, often there are many parallel phrase entries in a Phrase Table that are either redundant, or do not contribute to the translation results effectively. Identifying these candidate entries and removing them from the Phrase Table will not only reduce the size of the Phrase Table, but should also help in improving the processing speed for generating the translations. The present paper develops a scheme based on syntactic structure and the marker hypothesis (Green 1979, The necessity of syntax markers: two experiments with artificial languages, Journal of Verbal Learning and Behavior) for reducing the size of a Phrase Table, without compromising much on the translation quality of the output, by retaining the non-redundant and meaningful parallel phrases only. The proposed scheme is complemented with an appropriate similarity measurement scheme to achieve maximum efficiency in terms of BLEU scores. Although designed for Hindi to English machine translation, the overall approach is quite general, and is expected to be easily adaptable for other language pairs as well.