The Smithsonian Institution's Arctic Studies Center at the National Museum of Natural History, in collaboration with Russian Far Eastern Museums from Sakhalin, Kamchatka, Vladivostok, Khabarovsk, and Magadan, the University of Alaska Museum in Fairbanks, the Alaska State Museum in Juneau, and the National Park Service, has produced a traveling exhibition designed for citites and rural communities in Alaska entitled “Crossroads Alaska” (1993–1995), after the larger “Crossroads of Continents” exhibition (1988–1992), which was too large to be seen in all but one museum in Alaska, and was unable to travel to Russia. This smaller exhibition of over 300 Alaskan and Siberian artifacts of small to moderate size focuses on prehistoric, traditional, and modern cultures of the NOrth Pacigic. “Cross Roads Alaska: illustrates cultural achievements which flourished for more than 15,000 years in this part of the world. The cultures represented include on the Alaskan side: Inupiaq, Yupik, Aleut, Alutiiq, Athapaskan, and Northwest Coast peoples; and on the Russian Far-Eastern side: Amur River peoples, Ainu, Koryak, Even, Evenk, Chukchi, Yukaghir, and Asian Esjkimo. The exhibition, under the title “Crossroads Siberia”, is planned to travel to Russia starting late in 1995.

Late fifteenth- and sixteenth-century freestanding bronze statuary presents evidence that the artists drew from both Experimentation sad divrcse, technological traditions prevalent at the time. The indirect lost wax casting technique was refined for the manufacture of statuettes by the end of the sixteenth century in the Florentine workshop of the Flemish sculptor Giambologna. Combining art historical and scientific analysis with an understanding of materials and techniques provides an integrated method of study which helps art historians and conservators to clarify the manufacturing process of these works. This can serve to construct a broad historical picture of techniques in different workshops and regions and to date and authenticate particular bronzes. X-radiography is the most informative tool for identifying technological features in this kind of work. Surface examination, analyses of the metal (by x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy and atomic absorption spectrometry) and refractory molding materials (by polarized light microscopy and microprobe analysis) complement this information.

The development of paper-like materials played an important role in the intellectual evolution of various high cultures of the world also in Central America. The today's word “paper” is taken from “papyrus,” the paper of ancient Egypt. Papyrus was also one of the important construction materials for boats, mats, sandals, etc., the main use, however, was as writing material. Fray Toribio Benavente, a Franciscan, writes: Paper is made from “metl” (Agave), and they make much of this today in Tlaxala. There are also trees (maguey), whose bark they take to make paper called “amatl” (fig tree).

Since early 1978, the Proyecto Templo Mayor of the INAH has recovered part of one of the most prominent ceremonial complexes of the Mesoamerican world: the Sacred Precinct of Mexico-Tenochtitlan. Some of the most outstanding discoveries include the remains of 15 structures (almost all with various sub-structures), 117 rich offerings with more than 8,000 elements, along with a large number of sizable sculptures, bas-reliefs, mural paintings and ceramic fragments.

The David-Garedji mural painting of XII-XIII cent. were made on gypsum plaster with tempera technique “in secco”. The egg yolk and organic glue served as a colour bound agent. The plaster substratum designed for painting was mixed with organic glue.

The great abundance of coherent volcanic tuffs throughout the Latium Region, the ease with which they can be quarried and worked, and their reasonable compression strength characteristics have made of this material a very popular one for construction purposes ever since ancient times. This paper is the first product of a research aimed at characterizing, from the geological, petrographic and technical points of view, the coherent volcanic tuffs used in the construction of historic buildings in Rome and Latium since the days of ancient Rome. After a short description of the technical characteristics of some of the most widely used coherent volcanic tuffs and after briefly mentioning some examples of how they are employed in the construction area, a detailed presentation is given in particular of the “Lapis Gabinus” type. This volcanic tuff, coming from the volcanic activity of the Albani Hills, was used to build the Tabularium, a historic building of ancient Rome (Figure 1).

In the present work, the main decay phenomena of the various lithotypes of the ancient Sanctuary of Demeter (1600BC) in Eleusis-Greece are studied in respect of the environmental factors under monitoring, concerning an area characterised by a heavy industrial pollution in an intense marine environment.

Stone surface alterations are studied by examining the various neoformations. Specific investigation has been performed on the depositions of the total suspended particles, mainly characterising the polluted atmosphere in the Thriassian plain, as possible weathering causes. OM, SEM, EDX and XRD analysis are employed consequently.

Decay phenomena like crust formations (gypsum, loose depositions of soot and suspended particles, at the more or less sheltered areas), various cementitious encrustations on the marble surfaces, especially the horizontal ones, or Fe-rich yellow patinas on the washed out surfaces are evidenced.

These weathering phenomena might be attributed to pollutants, suspended particles and their wet and dry depositions, which are measured according to the analysis performed.

The original mortars, which have been deteriorated by natural weathering, salt decay and the corrosive action of polluted atmospheres, have to be replaced. However, the uncontrolled and rather extensive use of cement and polymer-based mortars, give very unsatisfactory results, due to the high content of soluble salts and the limited compatibility with the original components of the masonry.

Hence, restoration mortars compatible with the traditional building materials, though more resistant than the original ones, should be searched out.

In the present work an attempt is made to evaluate whether the traditional materials and technologies, reproduced by the monks of the Toplou Monastery in Crete, do provide ameliorated restoration mortars.

Physical, chemical and mineralogical investigations on Byzantine and post - Byzantine mortars and plasters of crushed brick and lime from Rhodes, Crete and Hagia Sophia, by Optical Microscopy, X-Ray Diffraction Analysis, Thermogravimetric Analysis, Hg- Porosimetry and Infra Red Spectroscopy, seem to provide reliable evaluation criteria.

This comparative study leads to the conclusion that the proper mixture ratio, the appropriate lime technology and raw materials, the crushed brick granulometry and texture, as well as the proper application techniques are necessary to achieve an optimized approach to the traditional mortars.

In the present study the possible chemical interactions among the constituents of historical walls have been investigated. In Venice but also in the whole mediterranean area the “cocciopesto” (constituted of powder and brick fragments which traditionally confer hydraulic properties to the mortar) has been widely employed both for mortars and the so called “marmorino” plasters. The work has been developed by examing the brick-mortar interaction on historical buildings in Venice. The samples were chemically analysed through XPS and XPSImaging techniques in order to ascertain the chemical composition of the interface layers. The results clearly indicate that a true chemico-physical interaction between brick and lime is present in the historical materials. A calcium carbonate accumulation has been observed at the brickmortar interface.

A study of 12 pre-Hispanic metal objects found in Cuba has been made using scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis. Certain of these objects may represent evidence of pre-Columbian trade between cultures in eastern Cuba and the Central American region; others bear testimony to early Spanish-American contacts. The objects were found near the sea in the provinces of Holguàn, Guantánamo and Santiago de Cuba. The objects found at the southern sites were found to be native gold, brass and a gold-silver-copper alloy (guanàn or tumbaga). The brass objects, worked and shaped in traditional Indian forms, are evidence of early Spanish-American contacts. A plate with an unusual nickel enriched surface was also found among the objects from the southern coast. The more elaborate objects found at the site near Holguàn are tumbagas (guanàn) which are stylistically similar to Central American examples. They are evidence of trade between Cuba and Mesoamerica before or shortly after the arrival of the Spaniards.

The Red Bay Wreck, a well preserved 16th century Basque galleon, was excavated during eight field seasons from 1978 to 1985. During the 1985 field season the wreck was reburied in Red Bay harbour. The goals of the reburial project were to protect the Red Bay wreck from physical, chemical and biological deterioration and to design a monitoring system to verify that the reburial mound is meeting its preservation objectives.

This paper discusses the factors that influenced the choice of reburial as the means of the wreck's preservation, the design of the reburial mound, the design of the monitoring scheme and the results of the ongoing monitoring of the site. Visual monitoring of the site, chemical analysis of the water, and examination of timbers buried in the mound all indicate that the wreck is being preserved.

This paper reviews the effects of solvent quality on the physical “amorphous” polymers applied from solution, with a focupsh yosni craelc epnrto pteesrttiinegs ooff materials used in the conservation of art objects. Because the solvent composition or quality affects the shape and orientation of polymer molecules in solution, the nature of the partly crystalline dry film can also be affected. Thus, the physical and optical properties of a number of polymers have been shown to vary when deposited from solutions of different quality. This phenomenon is specifically related to the desired performance of a coating, adhesive or consolidant used for the conservation of an art object. The effects of “good” or “poor” quality solvents on the physical properties of solution-cast films of poly(vinylacetate) and Acryloid B-72 are discussed. In addition to polymer specific variations due to solvent quality on the glass transition temperature and the tensile properties (strength and elongation), the effects of quantitative amounts of retained solvent on these properties are considered.

The limestone used in the construction of much of the 8-1 ith century Maya structures at Xunantunich, Belize is mechanically weak. Active microfloral growth, cyclic changes in humidity and temperature, and exposure to the erosive effects of wind and rain have resulted in deterioration of the stone used at the site. Limestone samples were consolidated using water-compatible and other consolidants and were exposed to both sunny and shaded tropical environments for one year. Data-logging meteorological stations were used to monitor the temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, wind conditions and solar irradiance during the exposures. Accelerated aging tests on similarly treated specimens were performed in the laboratory. Dilute epoxy and acrylic resin systems in hydrophilic solvents were found to penetrate and consolidate weak limestone. Several biocides applied in dilute aqueous solution were effective in preventing microfloral growth on new limestone and for controlling in situ growth on historic limestone.

Amine groups in epoxy resin curing agents may be responsible for the effectiveness of this consolidant in limestone. Changes in stone appearance caused by the use of epoxy consolidants can be minimized by proper resin selection, application procedures and by modest outdoor exposure. Vacuum impregnation of deteriorated stone with epoxy resins results in deep penetration and is a process now in commercial use.

This report describes the results of two experiments characterizing chemical and physical change in ceramic constituents occurring from acid solutions commonly used to remove deposits from the surface of archaeological ceramics. The first examines the chemical effects of hydrochloric acid, in an attempt to identify the yellow color, commonly known as “acid burn,” often seen in museum collections on black-on-white sherds found in the Southwestern U.S. The compound is identified as Fe2O3H2O. The second study compares the physical effects of different acids on a group of Maya sherds. All acids tested in this study were found to cause physical damage.

A preliminary investigation into the effects of desalination on archaeological ceramics with evidence of use as cooking pots, from the Casas Grandes region in northern Mexico, was carried out. Soluble salts extracted during desalination were identified by ion chromatography (IC) and inductively coupled plasma emission spectroscopy (ICP), and related to local raw materials and the burial environment. The extraction of other soluble components in the ceramics during desalination, such as organic materials used in the manufacture or present as a result of the ceramic's use, was investigated by analysing dry residues of the desalination solutions. Fourier transform infra red spectroscopy (FTIR), pyrolysis gas chromatography (Py-GC) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were used to analyse the desalination residues. Changes in the microstructure as a result of prolonged immersion in distilled/deionised water were examined by petrographic analysis and scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) of thin sections prepared from six sherds before and after desalination. The effect of desalination on the physical property of colour was also examined. The results of the experimental work suggest that desalination has significant limitations that need to be considered before its application as a conservation treatment for archaeological as well as ethnographic ceramics with deterioration due to salts.

Consolidation is defined, as “the action of reinforcing or bringing strength to something”. This same name is given to the treatment that returns cohesion and stability to the fibers of a damage paper. In this research, we present the evaluation of four polymers widely used as consolidants for cellulosic supports, these consolidants are: gelatin, methylcellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose and Arabic gum. These four consolidants were evaluated alone and mixed between them, using statistical design in order to evaluate the synergistic or inhibitory effect. We understand by synergism to the phenomena that occurs when the action of a substance is reinforced by the action of another one; and by inhibition the phenomena that occurs when the presence of a substance reduces the action of other one.

The concentrations on each of the consolidants were established in order that they had the same viscosity; this assures the same penetration into the paper fibers. The cellulosic support chosen, was a mid-thickness Japanese paper (kozo). Samples were evaluated before and after the consolidation treatment, then aged under controlled temperature, and evaluated again. Conclusions are presented.

In the present study several cleaning procedures were taken into account: microblasting, ammonium carbonate, EDTA, etc. The various cleaning procedures were applied to Venetian Istria stone manufacture. The performance evaluation of the various procedures employed was accomplished by measuring the following significant parameters, before and after treatment: colour change through the CIELab method, surface morphology through a fiber optical microscope (MFO) and analysis of the different chemical action of the employed procedures.

Fathom Five National Marine Park, Canada's first such park, was established in 1987. Among the cultural resources visited by thousands of SCUBA divers each year are 27 shipwrecks of the sail and steam era. As cultural resources within a national park they come under the care of Parks Canada and must be inventoried and monitored to ensure that appropriate care is being given to their preservation and protection. To meet these responsibilities, a shipwreck monitoring program is presently being developed to determine the state of preservation of six of the wrecks and to alert the park to any threats to their continued survival.

The three areas that will be monitored are the physical integrity of the hulls or wreckage, the deterioration of the materials comprising the wrecks and the environment surrounding them. This paper describes the techniques used in the onitoring program and discusses the impact and control of visitor use of the site. The aim of the entire program is to help slow the deterioration of the historic resources while also encouraging sustainable use so they can be enjoyed by the public well into the future.

Tiwanaku is considered to be the most highly valued archaeological site in Bolivia, and one of the most significant in the New World. The aggressive environment at Tiwanaku is thought to have damaging effects on the stability of its stone architecture and monuments. In an effort to determine the nature of this impact, The Getty Conservation Institute (GCI) collaborated with the Bolivian National Institute of Archaeology (INAR) to establish a body of environmental data on the conditions found on site. The objective of this data collection was to provide INAR with substantive information that would be of assistance as they proceed with plans to conserve and protect the monuments of Tiwanaku for the future.

An environmental monitoring station was installed at the Tiwanaku site by the GCI and the INAR to collect information for two years about the climatological effects with the highest potential for damaging the monuments: solar radiation, wind, air temperature, relative humidity, ground soil temperature, stone temperature, and precipitation. This report presents the basis for and results of the data collection for aiding conservators at Tiwanaku.