In 1957, Troughton described the wild dog of New Guinea, naming it Canis hallstromi. Here the description given by Troughton is expanded by the addition of morphological, molecular and behavioural information collected from both captive and wild New Guinea singing dogs subsequent to the original description. The data support Troughton's identification of this canid as a unique taxon, although further studies are needed to clarify the exact level of taxonomic differentiation of this rare and possibly highly endangered canid.

The breeding of palm cockatoos Probosciger aterrimus was studied for 3 years from July 1999 to February 2002 in and around Iron Range National Park, Cape York Peninsula, Australia. Palm cockatoos were weakly seasonal breeders, with the peak of egg-laying occurring in September; 41 breeding attempts were monitored at 28 nesting hollows. Nearly all (27/28) nests were in tropical savanna woodland and an average distance of 320 m to rainforest. Males defended about four nest sites, only a subset of which were used for breeding. The typical active nest tree was in a near-vertical hollow with an opening that faced skywards; 62.1% of active nests were in living trees and the most common species of nest tree was Eucalyptus tetrodonta (48.3%). DNA fingerprinting revealed that some pairs reused the same nest hollow even when breeding attempts were separated by 1 or more years of no breeding activity, but that changes in hollow ownership also occurred. Nest usurpation, male territorial displays at the nest and evidence of interference competition by conspecifics suggest strong competition for nest sites, which is probably driven by variation in hollow quality and high investment in the nesting platform. Of active nests, 81% failed to produce a fledgling, thereby ranking the breeding success of palm cockatoos among the lowest reported for any species of parrot. They also invariably laid a single egg and seemed to breed infrequently, and thus they use an extremely slow life-history strategy. We suggest that this slow life history makes palm cockatoos on Cape York Peninsula sensitive to environmental perturbations, with fire being the most probable threatening process.

Food availability is one of the most important determinants of successful reproduction in birds. In a previous study, it was shown that Florida scrub-jays Aphelocoma coerulescens maintained a third egg mass when supplemented with a high fat and high protein diet during pre-breeding, as opposed to birds that were not supplemented that laid third eggs markedly lighter in mass than first- and second-laid eggs. Increases in egg quality promote chick growth and survival in many avian species. In this study, scrub-jays were provided with supplements throughout the pre-laying and nestling periods of 2001 and 2002 to investigate whether diet quality influenced growth and survival of chicks. Fledging success and survival to independence of unsupplemented chicks were higher for 2002 compared with 2001 indicating that breeding conditions (e.g. natural food availability) for jays were probably improved in the former year. Consistent growth patterns were found during the first 11 days post-hatch between chicks on supplemented and those on unsupplemented territories. Of the three growth measures, only seventh primary feather growth tended to be greater for third-hatched chicks on supplemented territories compared with third-hatched chicks on control territories. Food supplementation influenced survival of chicks. Compared with chicks hatching on unsupplemented territories, fledging success of chicks hatching from second-laid eggs was significantly greater in 2001, but not in 2002. Chicks from third-laid eggs on supplemented territories also tended to survive better in 2001 compared with chicks from unsupplemented territories, but, again, no such effect was found in 2002. We conclude that food supplementation in the pre-laying and nestling periods results in little measurable improvement in chick growth. However, improvements were found in survival of chicks that may be mediated through improvements in egg quality, but also may be the result of changes in foraging strategies of provisioning birds on supplemented territories. Chicks on supplemented territories might be in better body condition than those on unsupplemented ones. Methods other than morphometrics may be required to detect elevations in body condition of chicks raised on supplemented territories.

A series of laboratory experiments were conducted to determine if adult wolf spiders Gladicosa pulchra were capable of acting as predators of juvenile spotted salamanders Ambystoma maculatum. Spiders preyed upon salamanders in two of 20 trials and attacked salamanders in five trials. As attacks did not always kill salamanders, multiple attacks per trial were possible. A total of 11 attacks was observed: two complete attacks, and nine incomplete attacks. Attacks were considered complete if the spider inserted its chelicerae into the salamander and incomplete if the spider did not. In response to complete attacks, the salamander would flip onto its back. Salamanders occasionally responded to incomplete attacks by continuously raising and lowering their heads. To our knowledge, this behaviour is undescribed in this group of salamanders. An additional experiment investigated the influence of increased levels of salamander movement on this interaction. In this experiment, spiders preyed upon salamanders in one of eight trials and attacked salamanders in six trials (28 total attacks: four complete attacks, 24 incomplete attacks). The results of this study indicate that wolf spiders can prey upon juvenile spotted salamanders, and that the ecological relationship between wolf spiders and amphibians may be quite complex.

The osmoregulatory function of common spiny mice Acomys cahirinus living on opposite slopes of the lower Nahal Oren (‘Evolution Canyon’) on mount Carmel, Israel, was investigated by increasing the salinity of the water source whilst maintaining a high-protein diet. The southern-facing slope (SFS) of this canyon differs from the northern-facing slope (NFS) as it receives considerably more solar radiation and consequently forms a more xeric, sparsely vegetated habitat. During the summer, mice living on the two opposite slopes significantly differed in their urine osmolality, which also increased significantly as dietary salinity increased. Offspring of wild-captured mice, born in captivity, and examined during the winter, continued to show a difference in osmoregulatory function depending on the slope of origin. However, they differed from wild-captured mice, as they did not respond to the increase in dietary salinity by increasing the concentration of their urine, but rather by increasing the volume of urine produced. This study shows that A. cahirinus occupying different microhabitats may exhibit differences in their ability to concentrate urine and thus in their ability to withstand xeric conditions. We suggest that they may also differ genetically, as offspring from the NFS and SFS retain physiological differences, but further studies will be needed to confirm this hypothesis.

The partial mitochondrial 12S rRNA and 16S rRNA gene sequences (440 bp and 590 bp or so, respectively were determined of the Przewalski's gazelle Procapra przewalskii, Mongolian gazelle P. gutturosa, Tibetan gazelle P. picticaudata, goitered gazelle Gazella gutturosa, saiga Saiga tatarica, Tibetan antelope Pantholops hodgsoni, and thar Hemitragus jemlahicus. The average sequence divergence for all the species studied when both rRNA genes were combined was 8.4% (±0.7%), and the divergence values ranged from 0.5% to 13.3%. The average sequence divergence values for 16S rRNA gene and for 12S rRNA gene were 9.9% (±1.1%) and 6.3% (±1.1%), respectively. The sequence divergences among species of Procapra for 16S rRNA gene and for 12S rRNA gene were 1.4%(±0.5%) and 1.1% (±0.6%), respectively. Our phylogenetic analysis revealed the monophyly of the genus Procapra and that Przewalski's gazelle is more closely related to the Mongolian gazelle than to the Tibetan gazelle. We also found that the genus Procapra is closely related to Antilopini. We argued that the critically endangered Przewalski's gazelle should be treated as a species, not a subspecies of the Tibetan gazelle, which clearly warrants more attention from conservationists.

Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus home-range size and habitat use were analysed using radio-tracking data collected in the southern district of the Kruger National Park (KNP) between 1987 and 1990. Meaningful estimates of home-range size, using the 95% minimum convex polygon method, were 126 km2 for a three-male cheetah coalition, 195 km2 for a solitary male, and 150 km2 and 171 km2 for two female cheetahs. Although cheetahs used all habitats according to their availability, they did show a preference for open savanna habitat because their core or total home ranges centred on these habitats. Female cheetahs used denser woodland habitat more frequently than males, as they seemed to be influenced by the distribution of their main prey, impala Aepyceros melampus, which also preferred denser woodland habitat.

In sexually dimorphic ungulates, male reproductive success depends on fighting with other males for access to females during a brief rutting season. Large body size is necessary for success in intrasexual competition, and a few large-sized males are often able to monopolize access to female groups. Earlier studies have reported that reproductive effort increases with age until prime-age is reached, and one study that population density lowered effort in (older) males. No study has directly assessed whether there is within-age-class variation in effort resulting from varying levels of intra-male competition. It is reported here the weight loss during the rutting season of 54 individual male reindeer Rangifer tarandus coming from eight herds with varying density (3.3–6.0 deer/km2) and sex ratio (4–28% males). In agreement with earlier studies, reproductive effort was lower for young (1- to 2-year-old) than for prime-aged (3- to 5-year-old) males both on an absolute and relative scale. Among 1-year-old males (n=33), effort was lower as sex ratio became closer to even, but density during the rutting season had no effect. This suggests that yearling males take a more active role when prime-aged males are absent. In addition to the insight into male ungulate life history, understanding male rutting behaviour may also have implications for population dynamics.

The potentially important ecology of subterranean predators of soil ecosystem engineers is poorly understood. This is especially true of caecilian amphibians (Gymnophiona) for which there are virtually no quantitative data. Results of the first field trials of permanent marking in caecilians are presented. A preliminary assessment is made of the efficacy of mark–recapture studies for estimating population size of Gegeneophis ramaswamii Taylor in 100 m2 of low intensity agriculture in Kerala, India. Over three sampling occasions spanning 58 days of the monsoon season, 114 individuals were captured, 104 marked and released, and 21 recaptured. Models estimate an open population of 60 individuals (95% confidence interval of 45.2 to 151.3), and a closed population of 236 (95% confidence interval of 174 to 351). A census interpretation of the raw capture data gives densities of about 0.31 to 0.48 m−2. Results suggest large movement in and out of the sampled area during the study. Despite caveats associated with these data, progress is made in identifying potential limitations and improvements in the methods used. This study highlights the paucity of knowledge of caecilian ecology, and the need for long-term studies to elucidate further ecological information and to monitor populations.

Alternative mating tactics are found in many species, and may have important implications for population genetics and speciation. The existence of such alternative mating tactics is well-documented in the three-spined stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus, and sneaking and egg-stealing may occur in a significant proportion of matings under natural conditions. Sneaking can impose high costs on territorial males, both in terms of reduced reproductive output and caring for unrelated offspring. We ask whether territorial males adjust their behaviour in response to the risk of sneaking. In a field study of three-spined sticklebacks on the Isle of Arran, Scotland, territorial males were presented with glass bottles containing either a male, a female or neither, to address whether territorial males were more aggressive to other males in the presence of a female, and whether territorial males courted females less in the presence of another male. Behavioural observations showed that territorial males did not behave more aggressively towards rival males in the presence of a female, but did reduce their rate of courtship towards females in the presence of rival males. We conclude that territorial males adopt behavioural strategies that may reduce their risk of reproductive parasitism.

The presence of maggots of the fly Beckeriellaniger (Ephydridae) in nests of six syntopic South American leptodactyline frogs is reported. The number of tadpoles of Physalaemus cuvieri leaving infested and non-infested nests were compared, and behavioural plasticity at the time of nest departure in the presence and absence of maggots was tested for. Maggots were found in nests of all species with exposed foam nests (four Physalaemus and two Leptodactylus species). The maggots remained in the nests of P. cuvieri for up to 3 days; adults emerged from pupae after 7 days. While in the nests the maggots consumed eggs, embryos, and tadpoles. The levels of infestation increased from the beginning to the middle of the rainy season. Mortality caused by the maggots represented an important source of mortality (mean 74%) of eggs and embryos of P. cuvieri, and probably, of the other species. The time of emergence from nests by the tadpoles of P. cuvieri was shorter (up to 21 h earlier) in infested nests. The tadpoles that left the infested nests were at the same, or a less-developed stage than tadpoles in non-infested nests. The variation in the degree of infestation, with lower values at the beginning and the increase to the middle of the rainy season, suggests that the flies may be an obligatory predator on foam nests. For tadpoles of P. cuvieri, entering the water at a later developmental stage may be important to avoid aquatic predators. Conversely, leaving infested nests at the earliest possible stage may represent a strategy to avoid maggot predation. The longer time before emergence of tadpoles of P. cuvieri from non-infested nests corroborates the hypothesis that, among leptodactyline frogs, the foam nest is a predator avoidance adaptation in the aquatic media.

The marsupial brushtailed phascogale Phascogale tapoatafa is a solitary, hollow-dependent, arboreal insectivore that occurs at low densities in open forests and woodlands of Australia. Data gathered from nest box surveys (4 years), and from radio-tracking phascogales to nest sites (3 years) in south-western Australia confirm solitary nesting after dispersal. However, in the winter of a single year, nest box surveys in one study area showed that 56% of individuals were nest sharing. On a neighbouring site, 81 group nests were also recorded among 18 radio-collared individuals. In both areas, groups comprised two to four individuals of any age/sex combination. The same phascogales tended to nest together and in a number of different sites. Nest sharing between females was restricted to territory boundaries and continued after the annual die-off of the males. Nest sharing coincided with prolonged drought conditions and in this year mature phascogales were significantly smaller than normal, i.e. males 25% less in weight, females 12% less. Communal nesting seemed to be a response to thermoregulatory difficulties posed by the three interrelated factors of low body mass, declining temperatures and declining food availability. Nest sharing in this species appeared to be a behavioural indicator of an energetics crisis, there was a population decline during the drought period and a population crash in the following year.

The diet of Myotis ricketti was examined by faecal analysis, and foraging behaviour was observed in the field. Scales from at least three species of small fish were found in the droppings, together with fragments of insects from six orders. This study demonstrates that M. ricketti is a fish-eating bat. As with other trawling bats in the genus Myotis, M. ricketti emits short, broadband echolocation sounds. The sounds recorded from bats released from the hand swept downward from c. 70 to 28 kHz in 4 ms, and contained most energy at 41 kHz.

The social behaviour of symbiotic organisms is influenced by the density and distribution pattern of hosts. Herein we examined the host-use behaviour of the anemone-dwelling crab Allopetrolisthes spinifrons (Porcellanidae) in which adults usually live as solitary individuals on their hosts. Adults of this crab use two different sea anemone species, one intermediate-sized species that can be found at relatively high densities in the intertidal zone and another large one that occurs at significantly lower densities in the shallow subtidal zone along exposed rocky shores of the south-east Pacific. Mark–recapture experiments demonstrated that crabs in subtidal waters (low abundance of hosts) remained for long time periods on the same hosts while crabs in the intertidal environment (high abundance of hosts) frequently changed hosts. There were no differences in host fidelity between male and female crabs. In an immigration experiment in the intertidal zone, significantly more juveniles immigrated than had been present originally, indicating that host-use behaviour is age dependent. The sex ratio between resident and immigrated individuals did not change. In an additional experiment hosts were planted at two different densities (high and low) both in the shallow subtidal and the intertidal zone to test whether host fidelity of crabs depends on distance between hosts. At the subtidal site, about half the crabs remained on their sea anemones for 14 days while at the intertidal site most crabs disappeared within 1 day in both density treatments. At both sites crabs were seen changing hosts in high density treatments, but no such events could be witnessed at low densities of hosts. Although the results are not fully conclusive, they suggest that host movements are affected by host densities. This relationship may be mediated by host (anemone species, size, distance) and site-specific (predation pressure, exposure time) factors. In general, the present study indicates that host characteristics influence host fidelity of symbiotic organisms and thereby, their social behaviour.

Scorpions use sclerotized spermatophores for sperm transfer. The family Bothriuridae has one of the most complex scorpion spermatophores, with a distinct capsule and lamella. This study evaluates the viability of hypotheses relating to the evolution of animal genitalia that attempt to explain the functional morphology observed in spermatophores and female genitalia of some members of this scorpion family. These hypotheses are: female choice (internal courtship), conflict of interests (morphologically forced insemination) and lock-and-key (interspecific mechanical incompatibility). Observations of the mating sequences of 13 bothriurid and one buthid scorpion were recorded. The histology of female atrium was analysed. The data suggest that: (1) a genital copulatory courtship (sexual stimulation through male genitalia) could be a widespread mechanism among the capsules of the studied spermatophores; the wall of the female genital atrium in Brachistosternus as well as of other genera is usually rubbed by spines, tubercles or capsular lobes of spermatophores; the female genital atrium is relatively soft, elastic and uniform among different species; (2) morphological coercion might be admissible only when capsular lobes are very well developed, as females will have difficulty in disengaging by themselves from the large lobes if they attempt to interrupt sperm transfer; this mainly occurs in Bothriurus bonariensis; (3) observations of matings among closely related species indicate that the lock-and-key hypothesis is unable to explain spermatophore morphology in the studied species; however a certain degree of mechanical incompatibility occurs during interspecific mating between two sister species (B. bonariensis and B. chacoensis) owing to differences in capsular lobes and post-insemination behaviour; (4) these hypotheses might not be directly applied to simple spermatophores of the Buthidae Zabius fuscus. The results indicate that even though one genital mechanism can be more frequent than others, they can also exist together, not only in different genera but also in a single species (e.g. simultaneous occurrence of genital sexual stimulation and genital coercion in B. bonariensis). Indirectly these data suggest that the hypotheses most frequently quoted to explain genital morphology are not mutually exclusive.

Communication sounds or ‘social calls’ of 16 European bat species (Chiroptera, Vespertilionidae) were recorded at a range of roost and foraging sites. A comparative analysis of more than 5400 individual calls for general structures and for inter- as well as intraspecific variability resulted in 50 types of calls, which differed by their specific structure and by the calling species. These types could be grouped into four different general types of calls, according to the kind and complexity of their structure, independent of the calling species. Distinct types of calls seem to have similar functions in different bat species. One general type may be used predominantly in female–infant interactions as an isolation or direction call, which serves as mutual recognition. This type of social call was also used in ‘tandem flights’ of pairs of bats, which might increase individual knowledge of roost sites and foraging success. A second type was used in mate attraction, and a further one in an aggressive context. The fourth one was used by hindered or distressed bats. The group of ‘aggressive’ calls is least variable, but the complex mating calls and isolation calls are very diverse. Species-specific sound structures were identified, which allowed a computational species distinction. The measured inter-individual variability of social calls should be significant for their functions in individual recognition. So, beyond common features concerning the frequency structure of bat social calls, interspecific differences, as well as the intraspecific variability of details of sonagraphic parameters, should elucidate the specific functions of the calls.

Bentholyonsia teramachii has hitherto been described from Japan, but a conspecific specimen is herein recorded from Western Australian shelf waters at a depth of ∼100 m. Hitherto placed in the Lyonsiidae, B. teramachii is herein relocated in the Lyonsiellidae, alongside a second genus – Lyonsiella. Features of the anatomy of Bentholyonsiateramachii, including highly sensory siphons, reduced ctenidia unable to collect and transport particulate food, non-sorting labial palps, and a simplified Type II stomach and muscular gut all suggest that the species is a predator like Lyonsiella formosa. Other features of the anatomy, such as pallial taenioid muscles, radial mantle glands, and the structure of the ctenidia all point to a link between B. teramachii and the Lyonsiellidae and thus with the Verticordiidae and Parilimyidae and, therefore, with some of the oldest anomalodesmatans, the Pholadomyidae. In the possession by B. teramachii of a unique pair of antero-dorsal suspensory muscles, the link with fossil pholadomyoideans is reinforced. Bentholyonsia thus represents another genus of predatory bivalve, not only expanding our view of the prevalence of this feeding mode in the deep sea by this class but also helping us show how it evolved, in anatomical terms, from a suspension- (or deposit-) feeding ancestor.

A typical feature in members of the mustelid family is sexual size dimorphism, related to the different reproductive strategies of the sexes. As a consequence sexual divergence in many ecological and behavioural traits is expected, including temporal strategies. In line with this prediction, sex differences in the diel activity pattern of the European polecat Mustela putorius, a dimorphic mustelid, were quantified and tested. Twenty-eight polecats were captured in a rural area of central Italy (Abruzzo region) and 10 males and six females were monitored in the field using radio-telemetry techniques for 81–621 days each. Males and females showed a pronounced dimorphism in size (males/females mass ratio=1.6) within the known range for the species. Multivariate analysis of diel time preference shows that temporal behaviour differed significantly and markedly between the sexes. Males exhibited a regular and constant nocturnal pattern in every season, preferring the time ranging from 20:00 to 06:00; activity was lower at dawn and dusk, and scarce during daylight hours. Females were significantly diurnal and crepuscular but individuals revealed flexibility in activity pattern, including polyphasic or arrhythmic patterns without apparent temporal organization. The constraints of small body size and reproduction on female activity, and the sex segregation in activity timing are discussed in the context of intrasexual territoriality.

The social structure and social interactions of the nocturnal slow loris Nycticebus coucang are described from locational as well as observational data on wild animals. Data were collected during 600 h of nocturnal radio-tracking and 400h spent radio-locating sleeping slow lorises during the day. Data are also presented on morphometrics, injuries and ectoparasites, and dispersal. The slow loris is generally described as solitary, but although close-range encounters were rare, animals were observed to form stable social units (‘spatial groups’) characterized by home-range overlap and friendly interactions among members and non-overlap between units. Four spatial groups were observed, each consisting of a single adult female, a single adult male and a varying number of younger individuals. Group composition, together with relatively small testis volume and natal dispersal occurring in both sexes, hints towards a monogamous mating system. One extended family group was formed by the delayed dispersal of a primary pair's offspring. We did not find another often quoted correlate of monogamy – a weak sexual size dimorphism. Friendly interactions among members of a spatial group included allogrooming, following, alternate click-calls, and sleeping in contact. Yet, members did not engage in any co-operative behaviour of the types usually thought to be responsible for group formation in gregarious mammals. One important factor contributing to the sharing of space between slow lorises is probably that chances of successful dispersal are low. However, subtle benefits arising from the presence of conspecifics (allogrooming, transfer of information on food resources) may also be crucial for the formation or maintenance of slow loris spatial groups.

Annual censuses of the number of harbour seal Phoca vitulina pups born on Sable Island Canada showed an increasing trend during the 1980s, but a rapid decline through the 1990s from 625 pups in 1989 to only 32 by 1997. Weekly surveys of the North Beach of the island during the 1991–98 breeding seasons showed that the number of adults and juveniles also declined during the 1990s. Despite the dramatic demographic changes, maternal postpartum mass, pup birth mass, relative birth mass, lactation duration, pup weaning mass and relative weaning mass showed no significant trends during 1987–96. However, two traits did change. The age structure of parturient females increased significantly, indicating reduced recruitment to the breeding population. Mean birth date increased by 7 days during the early 1990s, suggesting nutritional stress of females and later implantation dates. This nutritional stress may in turn have been caused by increased competition from the rapidly increasing grey seal population on Sable Island. Although minimum estimates of shark-inflicted mortality can account for much of the decline, evidence suggests that food shortage arising from interspecific competition may have also played a role in causing the decline of the population through effects on fecundity and juvenile survival.