Determining the ubiquity of top-down control effects of predators on their prey and ecosystem processes is important for understanding community and ecosystem-level consequences that may result from predator loss. We conducted experiments at two spatial scales to investigate the effects of terrestrial frogs (Eleutherodactylus coqui) on aerial and litter invertebrates, plant growth and herbivory, and litter decomposition. At both scales, frogs reduced aerial invertebrates and leaf herbivory, but had no effect on litter invertebrates. At the smaller scale, frogs increased foliage production rates, measured as the number of new leaves and new leaf area produced, by 80% and decomposition rates by 20%. The influence of E. coqui on increasing primary productivity and decomposition rates at the smaller scale appeared to be a result of elimination and excretion rather than of controlling prey. While the results provide evidence for frogs controlling herbivorous prey at both scales, species effects on ecosystem processes were only detectable at the smaller scale. The results highlight the difficulties in conducting experiments at large spatial scales. The findings from this study imply that the loss of amphibians and other species of higher trophic levels may affect nutrient cycling rates in tropical forests.

Using 14C dating, the life span and growth rate of Borneo ironwood (Eusideroxylon zwageri, Lauraceae), which is a canopy tree species with extremely durable and decay-resistant wood distributed in tropical rain forests of South-East Asia, were studied. Timber segments collected from 15 logged stumps in Kubah National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia, were analysed by accelerator mass spectrometry and the obtained data were calibrated to determine the age of individuals. The 14C dating turned out to be an effective method for estimating ages of long-lived trees, such as E. zwageri, in the aseasonal tropics because the estimated error was small compared with estimated age. We found that E. zwageri can live more than 1000 y and that the growth rate of this species was very slow, with a mean radial growth rate of 0·058 cm y-1. The life span was much greater and the growth rate was much slower than those observed or estimated for trees of Dipterocarpaceae, the dominant family in this tropical forest. The long life span of this species may be caused by wood durability with a high specific gravity and abundant defensive compounds. Given equal carbon allocation, the high density and carbon-based defensive compounds may result in a reduced growth rate.

Relating patterns of species abundance to the processes that determine them at local and regional spatial scales is one of the central aims of ecological research. To examine the relationship between distribution and growth in tropical rain forest, seasonal and annual changes in tree diameter of two tree species with contrasting distribution patterns, Celtis mildbraedii and Strombosia glaucescens, were monitored across topographic gradients in moist semi-deciduous and moist evergreen forest in Ghana over 2 years, 1997-9. Concurrent measurements were made of soil water availability, and during 1997/8, of rainfall, nutrient availability and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). The two sites received similar, low, total rainfall during 1997/8, but soil water availability in the dry season at the evergreen site exceeded that at the semi-deciduous forest site. Soil water availability was higher during 1998/9 at both sites. During 1997/8, PAR was similar at the two sites. The evergreen site had soils of lower pH, available P, Mg, Ca and K concentrations than the semi-deciduous forest site. Water availability and the sand content of the soil increased and concentrations of total N and C decreased, from summit to valley positions at both sites. Celtis mildbraedii had significantly faster growth rates than S. glaucescens, and growth of both species was greater at the semi-deciduous than the evergreen forest site during the wet year (1998/9) but not during the dry year (1997/8). Celtis mildbraedii in semi-deciduous forest grew less in valley than summit and slope positions. We conclude that in the absence of a severe dry season, growth is higher in semi-deciduous than evergreen forest, and is related to the higher soil fertility in more seasonal forest. The patterns are consistent with the hypothesis that concentrations of available P and/or cations in the soil limit growth in evergreen forest, while concentrations of N in valley soils limit growth of C. mildbraedii in semi-deciduous forest. There was no evidence that variation in PAR influenced growth rates in these forests. A reduction in growth rate on less fertile soils may be a factor determining the distribution limit of dry forest species, such as C. mildbraedii, in evergreen forest.

Dew deposition was calculated for leaves of the epiphytic bromeliads Tillandsia brachycaulos and T. elongata in a tropical dry deciduous forest in Yucatán, Mexico, over one year. Plant characteristics and water relations were also measured. Estimations were made by using energy balance analysis and the Penman–Monteith equation. Dew accumulation was also quantified using a cloth-plate method and by change in mass of whole plants. Tissue water content and total leaf area were similar in the two species, but maximum tank water content was three-fold greater for T. elongata than for T. brachycaulos, which had a lower degree of tissue desiccation tolerance than T. elongata. Succulence for T. brachycaulos changed little during most of the year, decreasing significantly only during one month in the dry season. Leaf water potential and osmotic pressure did not change significantly after a dew-deposition event. Theoretical dew per night on leaves was greatest during the early dry season (about 0.72 mm) compared with 0.34 mm in the rainy season and 0.008 mm in the late dry season. Dew amounts alone are not adequate to support growth but may maintain a favourable water balance for epiphytic bromeliads during the driest months of the year.

Reproductive traits of 123 species of rain-forest tree from ultramafic regions of New Caledonia were assessed, mainly from herbarium specimens. Most species had extremely small, simple, pale-coloured flowers that are probably mainly pollinated by small insects, but not including bees. The seeds of most species were considered to be bird dispersed. However, wind is also important for pollination and seed dispersal. The phenological trend was for an increase in the number of species flowering and fruiting around the end of the warm dry season/start of the hot wet season, followed by a decline at the end of the wet season, and lower proportions during the cooler season. Seed size was significantly correlated with fruit size. Other correlations, between flower size and fruit size, and between seed size and seed number, were significant using species as independent observations, but did not hold following phylogenetic correction. Compared with non-dioecious species, dioecious species had significantly larger seeds, and a greater proportion of species with biotic dispersal, abiotic pollination and solitary (female) flowers. The long-term persistence of at least the larger-seeded tree species in New Caledonia is precarious, since the endemic giant pigeon, Ducula goliath, is probably their principal effective disperser, and this species is in decline.

The composition of anuran assemblages was studied in 16 streams at the Serra do Cipó, south-eastern Brazil, in which 26 anuran species were found. Volume and isolation level of stream sections of 150 m were estimated; tadpoles, adult anurans, and potential tadpole predators were searched for over 16 consecutive months. Stream size, isolation, richness and diversity of tadpole predators, and some additional physical and biotic variables were measured and related to anuran species richness. Smaller streams tended to shelter more anuran species than larger ones, but neither stream size nor stream isolation explained variations in anuran species richness. Anuran species richness tended to increase with tadpole predator diversity. Tadpole species richness was influenced by predator species richness, and was highest when there were seven types of tadpole predators present. The distribution of few anuran species could be clearly related to particular physical and biotic variables. The behavioural flexibility of anurans and the similarity among streams may have contributed to this pattern.

Tropical forests around the world contain animals that scatter-hoard fruits and seeds but few are known in Australian tropical forests. This study used both direct observation and spool-and-line tracking of simulated fruits to demonstrate that Australia's smallest kangaroos disperse large numbers of rain-forest fruits and seeds. They did so in two ways, either by scatter-hoarding or by carrying them away from the source to devour the flesh before dropping the seed on to the litter surface. The fruits used included a range of fruit types but particularly species with large fleshy fruit. Caches occurred as a single fruit pressed into the soil and covered with litter a mean distance of 17 m (±2.7 SE) and up to 68 m from the source. Musky rat-kangaroos handled up to 2700 fruits ha-1 mo-1 and they dispersed up to 900 fruits ha-1 mo-1 and cached up to 690 fruits ha-1 mo-1. This behaviour is a significant example of convergent evolution, which reflects similar behaviour found in agoutis, acouchies and squirrels on other continents.

Baseline ecological studies of pristine mangroves are important for monitoring, management and conservation of mangrove ecosystems. Diversity, density, biomass and community structure of crab and molluscan macrofauna were studied in a near-pristine mangrove forest in Sematan, Sarawak. In each of the nine 100-m2 plots, six 15-min catching periods were used to collect crabs and three 1-m2 quadrats were sampled for molluscan epifauna. Environmental variables and vegetation were also recorded in each 100-m2 plot. Thirty-one crab species and 44 molluscan species were recorded, including a few species not previously reported from Sarawak. Crab community structure was correlated with topographical height and surface water pH and salinity. Gastropod community structure was correlated with redox potential of water at depth, topographical height, surface water pH and leaf litter. Crab community structure and species number were positively correlated with tree and seedling community structure and diversity, suggesting that the mangrove vegetation is important to the crab fauna as a habitat and food supply. Molluscan abundance was positively correlated with sapling diversity and negatively correlated with the numbers of mangrove associates and tree species. The young leaves on mangrove saplings may provide a better food source than those on mature trees or mangrove associates. The data from this study provide a valuable baseline for future use at this site and for comparison with more degraded mangrove habitats elsewhere in South-East Asia.

In the first 3 mo of 1998, an aseasonal tropical rain forest at Lambir Hills National Park on the north-west coast of Borneo suffered an unusually severe drought. Extreme climatic events such as this one are expected to influence tree population structure and community dynamics through differential effects on growth and mortality. The demographics of seedlings of seven shade-tolerant tree species, including two dipterocarps, during this severe drought were contrasted with baseline demographic data from two earlier census intervals, one of which included a slight drought, and one of which included no drought. Hemispherical photographs were used to document an opening of the canopy that resulted from the dieback and mortality of large trees during the severe 1998 drought. Seedlings that experienced an increase in canopy openness were less likely to die than other seedlings. Rates of mortality and height loss were significantly increased in association with drought. The overall mortality rates during the severe drought and slight drought census intervals were 8.2% y-1 and 7.3% y-1 respectively, compared with 4.9% y-1 for the non-drought census interval. The incidence of height loss during the severe drought census interval was 27.5%, compared with rates of 11.7% and 20.1% for earlier census intervals. Dipterocarp species were less affected than some non-dipterocarp species, and the smallest seedlings suffered the greatest impact. If droughts in this region continue to increase in intensity and severity, they may ultimately cause a change in the species population densities and stand structure of the understorey seedling community of this rain forest.

Neotropical bats occupy a large variety of trophic niches, and represent locally abundant, species-rich communities. As such, they are highly suited as a model group for the study of temporal and spatial dynamics of animal communities. However, despite this important research potential, data on the dynamics and turnover rates of Neotropical bat communities are lacking. We here study both aspects for bats inhabiting two natural forests surrounded by savanna in Bolivia. Over a period of 8 y, both bat communities showed high rates of species turnover. As predicted, species relying on fluctuating food resources were more likely to be absent in particular years, whereas species relying on more predictable food supplies were present in all years.

An analysis of corticolous bryophyte diversity on whole trees in primary rain forest and 4-15-y-old fallows at 500-650 m in the Alto Beni, Bolivia, showed a significantly decreased diversity of bryophyte families and moss species in the fallows. However, liverwort diversity was scarcely lower in the fallows, except in the very young (4 y old) ones. Fallows had a significantly higher percentage of smooth mat species (72%), which may reflect the warmer, drier microclimate in the fallows. About half of the bryophyte species of the rain forest had re-established in the 10-15-y-old fallows. The majority of these are ecological generalists and sun epiphytes; a small minority are shade epiphytes. Re-establishment of ecological specialists is slower than that of generalists. Species richness in the primary forest is highest in the canopy; in the fallows it is highest in the understorey due to striking shifts of species and specialized growth types (rough mats, fans, tails) towards lower heights on the trees in the fallows. These shifts correspond well with measured changes in air temperature and air humidity in the fallows as compared with the forest.

Effects of the elephant gut and elephant dung on seed germination and early seedling establishment/growth were investigated in Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary using undestroyed seeds of 14 plant species sorted from fresh elephant dung between 1 June 1994 and 31 May 1995 and similar seeds extracted from fresh ripe fruits fallen on the forest floor within the same period both sown in fresh elephant dung and forest soil. Parameters measured were final germination success, germination time and seedling growth rate. Results indicated that two species, Panda oleosa and Poga oleosa, did not germinate at all after 365 d irrespective of their sources and media of planting. Germination success observed in ingested seeds was significantly different from that observed in seeds from fresh fruits. Germination success observed in elephant dung was not significantly different from that in forest soil. Mean germination time varied widely between species and treatments but was generally shorter in seeds that passed through the elephant gut than those collected from fresh ripe fruits and these differences in mean germination time were significant in 92% of the species that germinated. Growth rates of seedlings from ingested seeds were higher than those from fresh ripe fruits especially in elephant dung. Growth medium was highly significant to growth in 10 of 12 species (83%) and source was important only to two species (16%) while their combined interacting effects were significant to three of the 12 species (25%). It is concluded that ingestion of seeds by the elephant is important in the germination of some rain-forest species and the elephant dung that contains the seeds dispersed is very important in the rapid growth of the seedlings. On the basis of germination success plant species that are absolutely or exclusively dependent on elephants for dispersal/germination are absent in Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary, while Omphalocarpum elatum and Strychnos aculeata would be on the basis of fruit morphology.

Gaps created by the death of one or more contiguous trees are common in mangrove forests but are poorly understood. In Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia, where mangrove wood is harvested for local use, most natural gaps were < 50 m2, whereas most logging gaps were > 100 m2. Interior zones, where access is facilitated by roads, were the most heavily exploited. Although the forests contained 11 species, two species were primarily responsible for gap formation. Natural gaps were caused mainly by broken stems and large branches of Sonneratia alba trees, whereas logging gaps were created primarily by harvesting Rhizophora apiculata trees. Most natural gaps were formed by the fall of more than one tree or branch. Seedling densities were higher in logging gaps than in natural gaps and higher in gaps than under intact canopy. Bruguiera gymnorrhiza was the most common seedling species in gaps and under intact canopy. Relative rates of growth in height were faster in gaps than under intact canopy for R. apiculata and B. gymnorrhiza seedlings. Current harvesting practices on the island do not seem to be altering species richness, although R. apiculata may become less common as gaps are increasingly captured by B. gymnorrhiza.

Patterns of vertical stratification and canopy utilization by rodents and marsupials were analysed in two contiguous Atlantic forests at different altitudes (100 m and 900 m asl). Twenty-two species were captured using live traps placed at ground level, in the understorey (1.5–2.0 m), and in the canopy (6–15 m) over 2 y; seven species (32%) were mainly or exclusively arboreal. Community composition and relative abundance of species in the different vertical strata were not similar, with a general reduction in the number of species, and in abundance in the upper layers. The following species were captured mainly or exclusively in the canopy: Micoureus demerarae and Gracilinanus microtarsus (Didelphimorphia, Didelphidae); Wilfredomys pictipes, Oecomys aff. concolor, and Rhipidomys aff. macrurus (Rodentia, Muridae); and Nelomys nigrispinus (Rodentia, Echimyidae). Our results indicated that altitudinal changes in Atlantic forest areas may alter the community composition of different forest layers but they do not seem to alter greatly specific patterns of vertical habitat utilization. Similar-sized species tended to differ in their patterns of vertical utilization of habitat with the exception of terrestrial akodontine rodents (genera Akodon, Thaptomys, Oxymycterus and Brucepattersonius). Rodents (mainly Oryzomys russatus) dominated captures at ground level at both sites but Akodontinii were numerous only at the highest site. Unlike other neotropical forests, marsupials did not dominate canopy captures.

Effects of seed passage through digestive tracts of principal animal dispersers (bats and birds) on seed germination were investigated for two columnar cactus species, Stenocereus griseus and Subpilocereus repandus. In general, seeds ingested showed more rapid germination times and higher overall germination rates than untreated seeds. The bat Glossophaga longirostris, and the birds Mimus gilvus and Tachyphonus rufus seem to be the most efficient cacti dispersers in terms of quality of treatment. The increment of germination speed and particularly the decrease of imbibition time, could favour the probability of germination in dry areas such as arid and semi-arid environments.

The tropical flora remains chronically understudied and the lack of floristic understanding hampers ecological research and its application for large-scale conservation planning. Given scarce resources and the scale of the challenge there is a need to maximize the efficiency of both sampling strategies and sampling units, yet there is little information on the relative efficiency of different approaches to floristic assessment in tropical forests. This paper is the first attempt to address this gap. We repeatedly sampled forests in two regions of Amazonia using the two most widely used plot-based protocols of floristic sampling, and compared their performance in terms of the quantity of floristic knowledge and ecological insight gained scaled to the field effort required. Specifically, the methods are assessed first in terms of the number of person-days required to complete each sample (‘effort’), secondly by the total gain in the quantity of floristic information that each unit of effort provides (‘crude inventory efficiency’), and thirdly in terms of the floristic information gained as a proportion of the target species pool (‘proportional inventory efficiency’). Finally, we compare the methods in terms of their efficiency in identifying different ecological patterns within the data (‘ecological efficiency’) while controlling for effort. There are large and consistent differences in the performance of the two methods. The disparity is maintained even after accounting for regional and site-level variation in forest species richness, tree density and the number of field assistants. We interpret our results in the context of selecting the appropriate method for particular research purposes.

For many tropical forests a tendency for fruit production to fluctuate seasonally has been established, with pronounced peaks of abundance and periods of fruit scarcity during which a few important resources maintain frugivore communities. However, there is a lack of studies in subtropical forests on community phenology and on the identification of important resources. In this study, community-wide fruit availability and its use by the local frugivore community was investigated in the subtropical coastal dry forest of Oribi Gorge Nature Reserve, South Africa over 13 mo from July 1997 to July 1998. Along 19.5 km of phenology trails, 940 individuals of 96 plant species bearing fleshy fruits were monitored twice per month and fruit-eating animals observed. Although some fruit was available all year round richness of both fruiting species and fruit abundance showed a seasonal pattern with peaks at the end of August to beginning of October (i.e. before the rainy season) and March to May (i.e. after the rainy season). Periods of fruit scarcity were found in July and August (i.e. during the long dry season) and in November and December (i.e. during the rainy season). Fruits of 23 plant species were observed being eaten by 18 species of bird and two of monkey. Highest animal numbers were attracted by Ficus thonningii, a species that fruited asynchronously during most of the year and during periods of fruit scarcity, and provided high overall fruit biomass. The importance of this species as a potential keystone resource for the frugivore community is discussed.

Current literature on the response of tropical tree seedlings to fertilization was analysed. Fertilization effects on biomass accumulation, relative growth rate and tissue nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) were examined for seedlings grown under relatively high light. Higher light conditions in gaps are expected as human disturbance expands in tropical landscapes. Two questions were asked: (1) Does nutrient addition enhance growth or result in nutrient accumulation in the tissues of tropical tree seedlings grown in pots under high light? (2) Are these responses conditional on their adaptations to light availability, seed mass or growth form? Most of the species (73% of light-demanding and 60% of shade-tolerant) demonstrated a positive growth response to fertilization. The magnitude of the response of light-demanding species was more than twice that of shade-tolerant species. A higher proportion of shade-tolerant species accumulated nutrients in their tissues (up to 95% for P), but over half the light-demanding species did so as well. For both types of species, a higher percentage accumulated P than N. Responses in growth and in P accumulation were negatively correlated with seed mass. Shrubs responded more than trees in biomass accumulation, but there was a trend toward greater response by trees in relative growth rate and N and P accumulation. The results suggest that variation in nutrient availability could affect the structure of tropical forests regenerating from large-scale disturbance. In fertile sites, competitive exclusion may occur within the light-demanding species, resulting in a decline in local tree diversity. Depending on the effects of human disturbance on nutrient availability, loss of tree diversity at a local scale may compound diversity loss due to habitat destruction at the landscape scale.

Changes in morphological and anatomical leaf characteristics of woody plant species along an altitudinal gradient as well as between a late-successional and mature upper montane rain forest were examined. For leaf size, the Raunkiaer-Webb classification system was applied. The mature-forest transect comprised eight plots of 0.1 ha between 2300 and 3300 m asl, the successional-forest transect, four plots between 2400 and 2750 m asl. The latter comprised structurally heterogeneous vegetation patches. For each plot the proportions of leaf size classes and of the different categories of leaf shape, margin, and apex were calculated. Leaf size and the proportion of drip-tips decreased with increasing elevation. Serrate leaf margins were more prominent at higher elevations. Stomatal density, leaf thickness and related anatomical characteristics did not show significant trends. Differences between the mature and successional forest plots were generally slight. The advanced age of the successional forest probably led to a convergent development of leaf characteristics.

A population of the giant leather fern Acrostichum danaeifolium was observed during an 18-mo period at La Mancha (19°36′00″N, 96°22′40″W), Veracruz, Mexico. The study site was 230 m from a brackish-water lagoon, in the understorey of the mangroves, which are dominated by Avicennia germinans (Avicenniaceae). Acrostichum danaeifolium showed a clumped distribution pattern, and one third of the population became fertile during this time. Plants had a mean number of 9.4 ± 0.45 sterile leaves, which developed continuously at a rate of 14.6 ± 0.44 leaves y-1. The mean life span of sterile leaves was 7.7 mo. Although soil water was always available, phenological patterns of fertility, leaf production and leaf growth were strongly correlated with the seasonal climate. Individual leaf growth and leaf size increased significantly during the rainy season. Fertile leaves emerged exclusively from April to August and had a mean life span of 4.1 mo. Spore release was restricted to the wet season, when conditions for germination were favourable. Environmental triggers of fertility are discussed and phenological patterns are compared with ferns and angiosperms from other habitats.