These notes are based on observations made in 1958 while the writers were members of the Birmingham and Exeter Universities Spitsbergen Expedition. The position of the ice front in 1958 is compared with that recorded on five previous occasions between 1882 and 1936. A rapid 6 km. advance at the end of the nineteenth century has been followed by a slower but equally extensive retreat. A revision of the limit of maximum advance is based on geomorphological evidence. Reasons are suggested for the relatively small changes in the outline of the ice front since 1927, and the effects of spells of moderately high atmospheric pressure are noted.

The object of the 1957 program of the Juneau Ice Field Research Project on Lemon Creek Glacier was (1) to obtain data on surface movement in the accumulation region, and (2) to relate the movement to the average annual hydrological budget. Results show a net loss of ice over the past four years, although this deficit does not appear to be reflected by the movement of the ice. Lemon Creek Glacier appears to be in approximate equilibrium.

The recently discovered Glaciar Universidad is the second largest glacier in central Chile. Aerial photographs taken in 1945 show that just before that date it had undergone a “glacier flood” or sudden advance, similar to those suffered by four other great glaciers of central Chile between 1927 and 1947. The cause of these floods is sought. Surface features (firn line, absence of penitentes but presence of “pocket-penitents”, glacier mills, dirt cones, water-filled holes with submerged ice crystals in them) prove that Glaciar Universidad is the most northerly glacier in the Andes of an Alpine type. The disposition of blue bands, crevasses, closed crevasses and shear planes is reported. Wave ogives are studied and an explanation is given of why dark Forbes’ bands form subsequently on these waves. A kind of unstratified esker of a form similar to a deposit observed by Mr. W. H. Ward in Baffin Island, has been studied, as also has the shearing of the frontal cliff along dirt strata; a theory of both phenomena according to which shear transfers material from the bed to the surface is questioned.

Recent investigations of the ice of the central polar basin have been largely done by Russians, and some of their results are given here. General characteristics of the ice and of the currents and bathymetry of the area are outlined. Attention is directed to advances in knowledge in two spheres; the effect of currents and local winds on ice drift, and the growth and structure of floes. To illustrate the latter, an explanation of the stratification of a 3 m. vertical section is quoted. In conclusion, the prospects of the work continuing, and of its results being made available, are assessed.

More than 8,000 ice crystals have been oriented and measured for crystal fabric studies from widely separated temperate and polar glaciers, using a large universal stage and thin-section techniques. Very strong fabrics have been found and a number of laboratory experiments on deformation and recrystallization of ice were conducted in an attempt to solve some of the perplexing problems raised concerning glacier flow.

In polar glaciers the c or optic axes of the ice crystals tend to be perpendicular to the foliation plane (alternating planar structures of bubbly and clear ice). In areas of high shearing stress the preferred orientation of the axes reached 39 per cent in 1 per cent of the area when plotted on a Schmidt equal-area projection. In temperate glaciers the optic axes tend to form three or four strong maxima which also appear related to the foliation.

Patterns from ice deformed in the laboratory resemble some of the fabric patterns found in polar glaciers. During deformation of laboratory specimens, large crystals have been observed recrystallizing into many smaller ones, while fine-grained ice, after completion of deformation (both glacier ice and laboratory deformed ice), has been annealed at melting temperature into a few large crystals with different orientations from the original pattern.

On aerial photographs of the Patagonian ice fields several types of bands can be identified; (1) fine ogives similar to Lüder’s lines in metals; (2) dirt bands which are both the outcrop of the annual debris strata of the névé and melt borders (the Schmelzrände of von Klebelsberg); (3) annual wave ogives below some ice falls; (4) annual ogives in regenerated glaciers, the formation of which is studied; (5) large melt borders which occur at longer intervals as a result of volcanic eruptions. These latter give evidence on the volcanic activity in the middle of the Patagonian ice fields.

Accumulation along the route of the 1959–60 Victoria Land traverse, derived from 19 snow pits, was found to be 16 cm. of water equivalent. Sastrugi, reflecting prevailing surface wind directions, indicate that the surface winds in Victoria Land are katabatic. Movement points on the Ross Ice Shelf show a maximum rate of about 844 m./yr. with Iesser rates obtaining in more marginal areas. Stake measurements of accumulation on the Ross Ice Shelf indicate an average of 20 cm. of water equivalent/yr. A large glacier, about 300 km. long and up to 30 km. wide and draining into Rennick Bay, was discovered.

A profile of ice thickness along the 647 mile trail from Little America V to Byrd Station has been obtained from altimetric, seismic, and gravity measurements, and detailed studies made at the junction of the Ross Ice Shelf and the Marie Byrd Land plateau. The surface elevation profile clearly shows the depression characteristic of this contact. The thickness of the floating ice shelf has been determined from the elevations assuming hydrostatic equilibrium; for this purpose the accurately known density-depth relationship obtained from a deep borehole at Little America V was employed. The buried rock topography at the contact has been deduced from a seismic sounding and variations in the gravity anomaly. Movement studies over a 22 month period are presented, and the crevasse pattern of the contact is analyzed in terms of ice movement. Suggestions are given for traversing the region by vehicle.

Glaciological studies during the Sheffield University Expeditions to Kilimanjaro in 1953 and 1957 included a survey of the glaciers and a close examination of the Penck Glacier and the stagnant remnants of the ice cap on the summit. The Penck Glacier has done little downcutting although it rests on friable rock. The glaciers and summit remnants are rapidly retreating, the Penck Glacier having retreated 3 m. in 3 months in 1957, and nearly 300 m. since 1912. The main accumulation zone appears to be at about 4,500–5,000 m. with a local “low level” firn line and an upper firn line above the top of the mountain. Maps of the glaciers, their recent fluctuations and moraines are being prepared. The glaciological and meteorological observations in 1957 form part of the I.G.Y. programme for East Africa.

Apparatus was built for deforming ice crystals under hydrostatic pressures up to 350 atmospheres. Single crystals were placed in the mounts in such a way that the deformation occurred by gliding on the basal glide plane. It was found that the shear strain rate increased as the pressure was increased at constant temperature, but that the rate is practically independent of hydrostatic pressure when the difference between the ice temperature and the melting temperature is kept constant.

The record of annual precipitation as obtained from stratigraphic studies on snow profiles in the interior of northern Greenland made in 1954 by SIPRE personnel shows a decreasing precipitation trend since 1920 with the largest decrease occurring since 1932. A residual mass curve analysis of the data indicates that, in spite of large fluctuations in the accumulated precipitation, the decreasing trend may be considered valid over a period of several years.

The glaciological work of the I.G.Y. Mt. Kenya Expedition, 1957–58, is described and some results are given.

The stages of retreat of the Mt. Kenya glaciers from their former limits are considered with reference to moraine evidence and existing records. A chronology is suggested for fluctuations during the last century.

Mapping of the present glaciers has been carried out. The changes undergone by the Lewis Glacier since a previous survey in 1934 are considered. The surface movement of the Lewis Glacier has been measured and its economy examined in relation to the meteorological and climatic environment.

When ice is kept in saturated air, thermal etching occurs. This has been applied in the study of grain boundary migration, sub-boundary and slip line formation. A few of the interesting results are reported to illustrate the usefulness of the method.

A general description of ablation polygons is given and variations from widely distributed regions are examined. After discussion of the conditions in which they most frequently develop, possible explanations are considered, leading to the conclusion that the polygons result from ablation by turbulence in the surrounding air, and that the dirt fringes to the polygons may be explained by the “normal trajectory” theory.

The Wilkes Station area comprises 75 km.2 of rock which form one of the most extensive exposures on this part of the East Antarctic coast. During 1957 and 1958 the continental ice sheet south-east of Wilkes Station was explored to a distance of 100 km. inland, and its form and behaviour studied by means of topographic, movement and gravity surveys. Surface stake measurements inland showed a net accumulation equivalent to 13.7 cm. of water in 1958. Sub-surface measurements of wetness, hardness, density, grain size, crystal size, shape and fabric and electrical conductivity were made at 60 locations and to depths which reached 62 m. at an auxiliary inland station. Meteorological observations were made and englacial temperatures measured. In summary, the ice sheet in this area provides a typical section of a polar glacier. The evidence for glacial fluctuations and the possibility of establishing a chronology for these are discussed.

The behaviour of a Norwegian glacier-dammed lake, before, during and after drainage in 1957 is described. The evidence of former shoreline terraces is interpreted and possible drainage mechanisms are discussed.

Pleistocene glaciation in the Commonwealth of Australia is confined to Tasmania and a small area on the mainland, chiefly in the Kosciusko plateau of New South Wales. Three glacial stages of decreasing intensity have been recognized—the Malannan, Yolande and Margaret Stages. These are characterized by ice cap, valley glacier and cirque conditions respectively. At its maximum the ice cover extended down to sea-level in western and southern Tasmania, but in New South Wales traces are not known below 1448 m. From consideration of snow line etc. it is estimated that during the maximum glaciation the temperature was about 13° F. (7.2° C.) lower than it is to-day.

Observations made of ice crystals growing on the surface of supercooled water show that they take the form of a composite structure, called surface needles, each of which consists of dendrites growing into the liquid, and of ribs growing in the liquid surface. Each needle is a single crystal. The precise form of the needle is determined by the orientation of the initial nucleus. If its optic axis is near normal to the surface, growth occurs rapidly in two dimensions and covers a much larger proportion of the surface than is covered by the narrow surface needles, so that ice forming this way appears to have its optic axis vertical. Hollow ice spikes observed on pools are shown to have been formed by the freezing of water forced from beneath the surface at the intersection of two or three surface needles, the shape of the spike depending on their orientation.