Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T01:03:39.958Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Qalʿeh-ye Mehrab Khan: The First Leprosarium in Iran

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2022

Willem Floor
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Before discussing the establishment and functioning of the first real leprosarium in Iran, a brief explanation is given of the pathology of leprosy, the various names are listed under which it was known in Persian, and the earliest archeological evidence of its occurrence is presented. Also, societal behavior in Imperial Iran towards lepers is highlighted, while reference is made to the earliest medical descriptions of leprosy in Persian. Little is known about the occurrence of leprosy in Iran over the centuries, as evidenced by the lack of knowledge about its prevalence among medical practitioners and institutions in Iran, even as late as the 1920s. Although segregated villages with lepers existed prior to 1926, it was only as of then that the Mehrab Khan village became the first true Iranian leprosarium, when regular institutional medical treatment was offered by American missionary physicians. The funding agencies, medical personnel and treatment, the living environment of lepers and their numbers in Mehrab Khan are discussed as well as how its population size and status changed over time, and how it was transformed into a structural component of public medical care. Finally and briefly, the establishment and functioning of two other Iranian leprosaria is discussed as well as the slow but sure disappearance of the disease in Iran.

Keywords

MedicineLeprosyQajarPahlaviAmerican missionariesAstan-e Qods-e Razavi
Type
Articles
Information
Iranian Studies , Volume 53 , Issue 1-2: Special Section: Medicine and Public Health in Modern Iran: Historical and Sociological Perspectives , March 2020 , pp. 9 - 41
Copyright
Copyright © Association For Iranian Studies, Inc 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

Author of, among others, Studies in the History of Medicine in Iran (Washington, DC: Mage Publishers, 2018).

References

Bibliography

RG 91-19-9, Resht Medical Reports 1918–44Google Scholar
“History of Resht Station”Google Scholar
Resht Medical Report 1928–29Google Scholar
Resht Medical Report 1930Google Scholar
Resht Medical Report 1931Google Scholar
RG 91-20-2, Mashad Hospital 1925–48Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1928–29Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1929–30Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1930–31Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1931–32Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1932–33Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1933–34Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1934–35Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1935–36Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1936–37Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1937–38Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1938–39Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1939–40Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1940–41Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1941–42Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1942–43Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1944–45Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1945–46Google Scholar
RG 231-1-2, Rolla Hoffman Correspondence 1910–19Google Scholar
Hoffman to Mother, October 4, 1936Google Scholar
RG 231-1-6, Rolla Edwards Hoffman, Pioneering in Meshed, the Holy City of Iran: Saga of a Medical Missionary. Duarte, California, 1969 (typescript).Google Scholar
IOR/L/PS/10/284, File 2612/1912 Pt 2 “Persia. Tehran Sanitary Council”Google Scholar
IOR/L/PS/12/3416, Coll. 28/20 “Persia Judicial. Civil, Commercial + Penal Code, and various laws”Google Scholar
IOR/L/MIL/17/15/8, “Military Report on Southern Persia”Google Scholar
IOR/L/PS/20/7, “Report on Fars by Captain A T Wilson, Indian Political Department”Google Scholar
IOR/R/15/2/1297, “File 6/78 Necessity to start leper settlement at Bahrain”Google Scholar
Adamec, Ludwig, Historical Gazetteer of Iran. 4 vols. Graz: Akademische Verlag, 1989.Google Scholar
Ādharī-Khākestar, GholāmRezā. Tārīkh-e Pezeshkī-ye Novīn-e Mashhad. Tehran: Dāneshgāh-e Āzādī-ye Eslāmī, 1395/2016.Google Scholar
Administration Report. “Administration Report on the Persian Gulf Political Residency for the year (1873 to 1940).” In Government of India. The Persian Gulf Administration Reports 1873–1947. 10 vols. Gerrards Cross: Archives Editions, 1986.Google Scholar
Andrews, Justin M., “Planning a Malarial Control Program for Iran.” CDC Bulletin, Malaria Control in Iran vol. 9/7 July(1950): 1–24.Google Scholar
Anonymous. “Leprosy in Persia.” All Nations: An Illustrated Missionary Magazine 2, January(1902): 46.Google Scholar
Anonymous. “Nastin Treatment of Leprosy According to Prof. Dr. Deycke.” “The Treatment of Leprosy with Nastin.” JAMA November 13(1909): 1646–1647.Google Scholar
Anonymous. “DNA of Jesus-Era Shrouded Man in Jerusalem Reveals Earliest Case of Leprosy.” Science Daily, December 16(2009) (The Journal of the American Medical Association).Google Scholar
‘Atāredī, Azizollah, Tarīkh-e Astan-e Qods-e Razavi. 2 vols. Tehran: Utared, 1371/1992.Google Scholar
Aufderheide, A.C., Rodriguez-Martin, C., and Langsjoen, O. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Azizi, Mohammad Hossein, and Bahadori, Moslem. “A History of Leprosy in Iran during the 19th and 20th Centuries.” Archives of Iranian Medicine November(2011): 425–430.Google Scholar
Bhandari, Amdba Datt, “Alepol in the Treatment of Leprosy.” The Indian Medical Gazette May(1932): 244–246.Google ScholarPubMed
Blau, S., and Yagodin, V. “Osteoarchaeological Evidence for Leprosy from Western Central Asia.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 126(2005): 150–158. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.20121CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradford, Mary E., “Something of Persian Lepers.” The Assembly Herald 12, no. 1(1906): 502–503.Google Scholar
Brown, Simon, and Simcock, David C. “Leprosy in Mesopotamia.” Research on History of Medicine 1, no. 4(2012): 147–156.Google Scholar
Brugsch, Heinrich, Reise der K.Preussischen Gesandtschaft nach Persien 1860 und 1861. Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1863.Google Scholar
Brugsch, Heinrich, Im Lande der Sonne: Wanderungen in Persien. Berlin: Allgemeiner Verein fuer Deutsche Literatur, 1886.Google Scholar
Bryan, C.P., The Papyrus Eberus. London: Geoffrey Bless, 1930.Google Scholar
Brydges-Jones, HarfordAn Account of the Transactions of His Majesty’s Mission to the Court of Persia in the Years 1807–11. Tehran: Imperial Organization for Social Services, 1976.Google Scholar
Cochran, James P., “Treatment of the Sick and Insane in Persia.” American Journal of Insanity 56(1899): 105–107.Google Scholar
Coloru, Omar, “Ancient Persia and Silent Disability.” In Disability in Antiquity, ed. Laes, C., 61–74. London: Routledge, 2017.Google Scholar
Das, P., “Leprosy and Nastin.” Indian Medical Gazette 46, no. 11(1911): 421–422.Google ScholarPubMed
De Gobineau, A., Trois Ans en Asie (de 1855 A 1858). 2 vols. Paris: Bernard Grasset, 1923.Google Scholar
Dikshit, B.B., “Alepol in leprosy.” The Indian Medical Gazette January(1932): 7–12.Google Scholar
Dols, M., “Leprosy in Medieval Arabic Literature.” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 34, no. 3(1979): 314–333. doi: 10.1093/jhmas/XXXIV.3.314CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dzierzykray-Rogalski, T., “Paleopathology of the Ptolemaic Inhabitants of Dakhleh Oasis (Egypt).” Journal of Human Evolution 9, no. 1(1980): 71–74. doi: 10.1016/0047-2484(80)90044-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elgood, Cyril, A Medical History of Persia and the Eastern Caliphate: The Development of Persian and Arabic Medical Sciences from the Earliest Times until the Year A.D. 1932. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951.Google Scholar
Feuvrier, Dr, Trois Ans à la Cour de Perse. Paris: F. Juven, 1900.Google Scholar
Floor, Willem, Studies in the History of Medicine of Iran. Washington, DC: MAGE, 2018.Google Scholar
Fraser, James Baillie, Travels and Adventures in the Persian Provinces on the Southern Banks of The Caspian Sea. London: Longman, 1826.Google Scholar
Gilmour, John, Rapport sur la situation sanitaire de la Perse. Geneva: Société des Nations, 1924.Google Scholar
Government of Great Britain. Geographical Handbook Series – Persia. n.p., 1945.Google Scholar
Griffith, Ralph T.H., Hymns of the Atharva Veda. London: Luzac and Co, 1895, 1974.Google Scholar
Iran Almanac 1963. Tehran: Echo of Iran, 1970.Google Scholar
Iran Statistical Yearbook 1387 (2008–09). Tehran: Statistical Centre of Iran, 2010.Google Scholar
Jorjānī, Esmaʿīl, Dhakhīreh-ye Khvārazmshāhī. Ed. Mohammad Rezā, Moharrerī. 3 vols. Tehran: Farhangestān-e ʿolūm-e pezeshkī, 1380/2002.Google Scholar
Kaempfer, Engelbert, Exotic Attractions in Persia: 1684–1688. Washington, DC: MAGE, 2018.Google Scholar
Häntzsche, J.C., “Lepra in Persien.” Virchows Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie 27(1863): 180–183. doi: 10.1007/BF01938527Google Scholar
Klingmüller, Victor, Die Lepra. Berlin: Springer, 1930.Google Scholar
Lichtwardt, Hartman A., “Leprosy in Afghanistan: A Preliminary Assessment.” International Journal of Leprosy 2, no. 1(1934): 75–76.Google Scholar
Loew, Dr, “Zur Lepra in Persian.” Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 34, no. 1(1908): 701–702.Google Scholar
Dedkhoda, Mirza Ali Akbar Qazvini, Loghatnameh-ye Dehkhoda, eds. Mo‘in, Mohammad, and Ja‘far Shahid, Sayyed, 1337–1341. 50 vols. Tehran: Daneshgah-e Tehran, 1958.Google Scholar
Lycklama à Nijeholt, T.M., Voyage en Russie, au Caucase et en Perse. 4 vols. Paris/Amsterdam: Aethus Bertrand/C.L. van Langenhuysen, 1875.Google Scholar
Matheson, C.D., Vernon, K.K., Lahti, A.et al. “Molecular Exploration of the First-Century Tomb of the Shroud in Akeldama, Jerusalem.” PLoS ONE 4(2009): e8319. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0008319CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matin, Peyman, “Jodhām.” Daʾerat al-Maʿaref-e Bozorg-e Eslami 17(1388): 639–645.Google Scholar
McLeod, Katrina C.D., and Yates, Robin D. S. “Forms of Ch'in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Feng-chen shih.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 41, no. 1(1981): 111–163. doi: 10.2307/2719003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Modi, Jivanji Jemshedji, “Leprosy, an Old Iranian View of It: The Legend Suggesting Cow-Urine as Its Supposed Preventive.” In Anthropological Papers. Part III, 93–118. Bombay: British India Press, 1911.Google Scholar
Modi, Jivanji Jemshedji, “Ancient Palipatura.” In Asiatic Papers II, 211–286. Bombay: Times Press, 1917.Google Scholar
Moghadas, Abdorreza Naser, “First Visual Evidence of Leprosy in the Continental Shelf of Iran.” Iran Journal of Public Health 44, no. 8(2015): 1162–1163.Google Scholar
Moʾtamen, Ali, Rāhnamā yā Tārīkh va Towsīf Darbār-e Velāyatmadār-e Razavī. Tehran: Bank-e Melli, 1348/1969.Google Scholar
Monzavi, Ahmad, Fehrest-e Noskhehha-ye Khatti-ye Fars. 6 vols. Tehran: Mo'asesseh-ye Farhangi-ye Mantaqeh'i, 1348–53.Google Scholar
Najmābādī, Mahmūd, Tārīkh-e tebb dar Irān pas az Eslām. Tehran: Dāneshgāh, 1353/1974.Google Scholar
Nasīrī, Mīrzā Naqī. Titles and Emoluments in Safavid Iran. Trans. and annotated by Floor, Willem. Washington, DC: MAGE, 2008.Google Scholar
Neligan, A.R., “Public Health in Persia, 1914–24.” The Lancet Part I; Part II, March 27(1926): 690–694; Part III, April 3: 742–744. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)93300-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nezām al-Saltaneh. Khāterāt va asnād-e Hoseyn Qolī Khān Nezām al-Saltaneh Māfī. 2 vols. Ed. Nezām Māfī, Mansūreh, Saʿdvandiyān, Sīrūs, and Rāmpīsheh, Hamīd. Tehran: Nashr-e Now, 1361.Google Scholar
Pahlavi, Farah, An Enduring Love: My Life with the Shah. New York: Miramax, 2005.Google Scholar
Polak, J.E., “Lepra in Persien.” Virchows Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie 27(1863): 175–180. doi: 10.1007/BF01938526CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Polak, J.E., Persien, das Land und seine Bewohner. 2 vols. Leipzig: F.A. Brockhaus, 1865.Google Scholar
Presbyterian Church. Seventh Annual Report of the Board of National Missions of the Presbyterian Church in the USA. New York: Presbyterian Church, USA, 1930.Google Scholar
Rasooli, Jay M., and Allen, Cady H. The Life Story of Dr. Saʿeed of Iran. Grand Rapids, MI: Grand Rapids International Publications, 1958.Google Scholar
Robbins, Gwen, Mushrif Tripathy, V., Misra, V.N., Mohanty, R.K., Shinde, V.S., Gray, Kelsey M., and Schug, Malcolm D. “Ancient Skeletal Evidence for Leprosy in India (2000 B.C.).” PLoS ONE 4(2009): e5669. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0005669Google Scholar
Schug, Robbins, K, G. Blevins, Elaine, Cox, Brett, Gray, Kelsey, and Mushrif-Tripathy, Veena. “Infection, Disease, and Biosocial Process at the End of the Indus Civilization.” PLoS ONE 0084814 (2013): e84814. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0084814Google Scholar
Römer, R., “Le Lèpre.” Bulletin de l’Académie royale de médecine de Belgique 20(1906): 99–165.Google Scholar
Rusta'i, Mohsen, Tarikh-e Tebb va Tebabat dar Irān. 2 vols. Tehran: Asnad-e Melli, 1382.Google Scholar
Schlimmer, Joh L., Terminologie Medico-Pharmaceutique. Tehran: Daneshgah, 1970.Google Scholar
Spigelman, M., and Donoghue, H.D. “Unusual Pathological Condition in the Lower Extremities of a Skeleton from Ancient Israel.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 114(2001): 92–93. doi: 10.1002/1096-8644(200101)114:1<92::AID-AJPA1008>3.0.CO;2-V3.0.CO;2-V>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teixeira, Pedro, The Travels of Pedro Teixeira with his “Kings of Harmuz.” Nendeln: Kraus Reprint, 1991.Google Scholar
Ussher, John, A Journey from London to Persepolis. London: Hurst and Blackett, 1865.Google Scholar
Vaqayeʿ-ye Ettefaqiyeh. 4 vols. Tehran: Ketabkhanehye Melli, 1373–74/1994–95.Google Scholar
Vaume, Dr, “La lèpre dans le Kurdistan Persan.” Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie de Lyon 5(1866): 158–162. doi: 10.3406/linly.1886.16273CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vinkhuijzen, H.J., De melaatschheid: vooral met betrekking tot hare oorzaken en verhouding in de maatschappij. The Hague: van Cleef, 1868.Google Scholar
Wilson, S.G., Persian Life and Customs. New York: FlemingH. Revell, 1895.Google Scholar
Wilson, S.G., Persia: Western Mission. Philadelphia, PA: Presbyterian Board of Publication, 1896.Google Scholar
Watelin, Louis-Charles, La Perse Immobile. Paris: Chapelot, 1921.Google Scholar
Wolff, Joseph, Travels and Adventures of the Rev. Joseph Wolff. London: Saunders, Otley and Co, 1860–61.Google Scholar
Zambaco, Pacha, and Alexandre, Démétrius. La lèpre a travers les siècles et les contrées. Paris: Masson & Cie, 1924.Google Scholar
RG 91-19-9, Resht Medical Reports 1918–44Google Scholar
“History of Resht Station”Google Scholar
Resht Medical Report 1928–29Google Scholar
Resht Medical Report 1930Google Scholar
Resht Medical Report 1931Google Scholar
RG 91-20-2, Mashad Hospital 1925–48Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1928–29Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1929–30Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1930–31Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1931–32Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1932–33Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1933–34Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1934–35Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1935–36Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1936–37Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1937–38Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1938–39Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1939–40Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1940–41Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1941–42Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1942–43Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1944–45Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1945–46Google Scholar
RG 231-1-2, Rolla Hoffman Correspondence 1910–19Google Scholar
Hoffman to Mother, October 4, 1936Google Scholar
RG 231-1-6, Rolla Edwards Hoffman, Pioneering in Meshed, the Holy City of Iran: Saga of a Medical Missionary. Duarte, California, 1969 (typescript).Google Scholar
IOR/L/PS/10/284, File 2612/1912 Pt 2 “Persia. Tehran Sanitary Council”Google Scholar
IOR/L/PS/12/3416, Coll. 28/20 “Persia Judicial. Civil, Commercial + Penal Code, and various laws”Google Scholar
IOR/L/MIL/17/15/8, “Military Report on Southern Persia”Google Scholar
IOR/L/PS/20/7, “Report on Fars by Captain A T Wilson, Indian Political Department”Google Scholar
IOR/R/15/2/1297, “File 6/78 Necessity to start leper settlement at Bahrain”Google Scholar
RG 91-19-9, Resht Medical Reports 1918–44Google Scholar
“History of Resht Station”Google Scholar
Resht Medical Report 1928–29Google Scholar
Resht Medical Report 1930Google Scholar
Resht Medical Report 1931Google Scholar
RG 91-20-2, Mashad Hospital 1925–48Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1928–29Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1929–30Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1930–31Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1931–32Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1932–33Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1933–34Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1934–35Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1935–36Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1936–37Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1937–38Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1938–39Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1939–40Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1940–41Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1941–42Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1942–43Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1944–45Google Scholar
Mashad Medical Report 1945–46Google Scholar
RG 231-1-2, Rolla Hoffman Correspondence 1910–19Google Scholar
Hoffman to Mother, October 4, 1936Google Scholar
RG 231-1-6, Rolla Edwards Hoffman, Pioneering in Meshed, the Holy City of Iran: Saga of a Medical Missionary. Duarte, California, 1969 (typescript).Google Scholar
IOR/L/PS/10/284, File 2612/1912 Pt 2 “Persia. Tehran Sanitary Council”Google Scholar
IOR/L/PS/12/3416, Coll. 28/20 “Persia Judicial. Civil, Commercial + Penal Code, and various laws”Google Scholar
IOR/L/MIL/17/15/8, “Military Report on Southern Persia”Google Scholar
IOR/L/PS/20/7, “Report on Fars by Captain A T Wilson, Indian Political Department”Google Scholar
IOR/R/15/2/1297, “File 6/78 Necessity to start leper settlement at Bahrain”Google Scholar
Adamec, Ludwig, Historical Gazetteer of Iran. 4 vols. Graz: Akademische Verlag, 1989.Google Scholar
Ādharī-Khākestar, GholāmRezā. Tārīkh-e Pezeshkī-ye Novīn-e Mashhad. Tehran: Dāneshgāh-e Āzādī-ye Eslāmī, 1395/2016.Google Scholar
Administration Report. “Administration Report on the Persian Gulf Political Residency for the year (1873 to 1940).” In Government of India. The Persian Gulf Administration Reports 1873–1947. 10 vols. Gerrards Cross: Archives Editions, 1986.Google Scholar
Andrews, Justin M., “Planning a Malarial Control Program for Iran.” CDC Bulletin, Malaria Control in Iran vol. 9/7 July(1950): 1–24.Google Scholar
Anonymous. “Leprosy in Persia.” All Nations: An Illustrated Missionary Magazine 2, January(1902): 46.Google Scholar
Anonymous. “Nastin Treatment of Leprosy According to Prof. Dr. Deycke.” “The Treatment of Leprosy with Nastin.” JAMA November 13(1909): 1646–1647.Google Scholar
Anonymous. “DNA of Jesus-Era Shrouded Man in Jerusalem Reveals Earliest Case of Leprosy.” Science Daily, December 16(2009) (The Journal of the American Medical Association).Google Scholar
‘Atāredī, Azizollah, Tarīkh-e Astan-e Qods-e Razavi. 2 vols. Tehran: Utared, 1371/1992.Google Scholar
Aufderheide, A.C., Rodriguez-Martin, C., and Langsjoen, O. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Azizi, Mohammad Hossein, and Bahadori, Moslem. “A History of Leprosy in Iran during the 19th and 20th Centuries.” Archives of Iranian Medicine November(2011): 425–430.Google Scholar
Bhandari, Amdba Datt, “Alepol in the Treatment of Leprosy.” The Indian Medical Gazette May(1932): 244–246.Google ScholarPubMed
Blau, S., and Yagodin, V. “Osteoarchaeological Evidence for Leprosy from Western Central Asia.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 126(2005): 150–158. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.20121CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradford, Mary E., “Something of Persian Lepers.” The Assembly Herald 12, no. 1(1906): 502–503.Google Scholar
Brown, Simon, and Simcock, David C. “Leprosy in Mesopotamia.” Research on History of Medicine 1, no. 4(2012): 147–156.Google Scholar
Brugsch, Heinrich, Reise der K.Preussischen Gesandtschaft nach Persien 1860 und 1861. Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1863.Google Scholar
Brugsch, Heinrich, Im Lande der Sonne: Wanderungen in Persien. Berlin: Allgemeiner Verein fuer Deutsche Literatur, 1886.Google Scholar
Bryan, C.P., The Papyrus Eberus. London: Geoffrey Bless, 1930.Google Scholar
Brydges-Jones, HarfordAn Account of the Transactions of His Majesty’s Mission to the Court of Persia in the Years 1807–11. Tehran: Imperial Organization for Social Services, 1976.Google Scholar
Cochran, James P., “Treatment of the Sick and Insane in Persia.” American Journal of Insanity 56(1899): 105–107.Google Scholar
Coloru, Omar, “Ancient Persia and Silent Disability.” In Disability in Antiquity, ed. Laes, C., 61–74. London: Routledge, 2017.Google Scholar
Das, P., “Leprosy and Nastin.” Indian Medical Gazette 46, no. 11(1911): 421–422.Google ScholarPubMed
De Gobineau, A., Trois Ans en Asie (de 1855 A 1858). 2 vols. Paris: Bernard Grasset, 1923.Google Scholar
Dikshit, B.B., “Alepol in leprosy.” The Indian Medical Gazette January(1932): 7–12.Google Scholar
Dols, M., “Leprosy in Medieval Arabic Literature.” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 34, no. 3(1979): 314–333. doi: 10.1093/jhmas/XXXIV.3.314CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dzierzykray-Rogalski, T., “Paleopathology of the Ptolemaic Inhabitants of Dakhleh Oasis (Egypt).” Journal of Human Evolution 9, no. 1(1980): 71–74. doi: 10.1016/0047-2484(80)90044-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elgood, Cyril, A Medical History of Persia and the Eastern Caliphate: The Development of Persian and Arabic Medical Sciences from the Earliest Times until the Year A.D. 1932. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951.Google Scholar
Feuvrier, Dr, Trois Ans à la Cour de Perse. Paris: F. Juven, 1900.Google Scholar
Floor, Willem, Studies in the History of Medicine of Iran. Washington, DC: MAGE, 2018.Google Scholar
Fraser, James Baillie, Travels and Adventures in the Persian Provinces on the Southern Banks of The Caspian Sea. London: Longman, 1826.Google Scholar
Gilmour, John, Rapport sur la situation sanitaire de la Perse. Geneva: Société des Nations, 1924.Google Scholar
Government of Great Britain. Geographical Handbook Series – Persia. n.p., 1945.Google Scholar
Griffith, Ralph T.H., Hymns of the Atharva Veda. London: Luzac and Co, 1895, 1974.Google Scholar
Iran Almanac 1963. Tehran: Echo of Iran, 1970.Google Scholar
Iran Statistical Yearbook 1387 (2008–09). Tehran: Statistical Centre of Iran, 2010.Google Scholar
Jorjānī, Esmaʿīl, Dhakhīreh-ye Khvārazmshāhī. Ed. Mohammad Rezā, Moharrerī. 3 vols. Tehran: Farhangestān-e ʿolūm-e pezeshkī, 1380/2002.Google Scholar
Kaempfer, Engelbert, Exotic Attractions in Persia: 1684–1688. Washington, DC: MAGE, 2018.Google Scholar
Häntzsche, J.C., “Lepra in Persien.” Virchows Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie 27(1863): 180–183. doi: 10.1007/BF01938527Google Scholar
Klingmüller, Victor, Die Lepra. Berlin: Springer, 1930.Google Scholar
Lichtwardt, Hartman A., “Leprosy in Afghanistan: A Preliminary Assessment.” International Journal of Leprosy 2, no. 1(1934): 75–76.Google Scholar
Loew, Dr, “Zur Lepra in Persian.” Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 34, no. 1(1908): 701–702.Google Scholar
Dedkhoda, Mirza Ali Akbar Qazvini, Loghatnameh-ye Dehkhoda, eds. Mo‘in, Mohammad, and Ja‘far Shahid, Sayyed, 1337–1341. 50 vols. Tehran: Daneshgah-e Tehran, 1958.Google Scholar
Lycklama à Nijeholt, T.M., Voyage en Russie, au Caucase et en Perse. 4 vols. Paris/Amsterdam: Aethus Bertrand/C.L. van Langenhuysen, 1875.Google Scholar
Matheson, C.D., Vernon, K.K., Lahti, A.et al. “Molecular Exploration of the First-Century Tomb of the Shroud in Akeldama, Jerusalem.” PLoS ONE 4(2009): e8319. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0008319CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matin, Peyman, “Jodhām.” Daʾerat al-Maʿaref-e Bozorg-e Eslami 17(1388): 639–645.Google Scholar
McLeod, Katrina C.D., and Yates, Robin D. S. “Forms of Ch'in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Feng-chen shih.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 41, no. 1(1981): 111–163. doi: 10.2307/2719003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Modi, Jivanji Jemshedji, “Leprosy, an Old Iranian View of It: The Legend Suggesting Cow-Urine as Its Supposed Preventive.” In Anthropological Papers. Part III, 93–118. Bombay: British India Press, 1911.Google Scholar
Modi, Jivanji Jemshedji, “Ancient Palipatura.” In Asiatic Papers II, 211–286. Bombay: Times Press, 1917.Google Scholar
Moghadas, Abdorreza Naser, “First Visual Evidence of Leprosy in the Continental Shelf of Iran.” Iran Journal of Public Health 44, no. 8(2015): 1162–1163.Google Scholar
Moʾtamen, Ali, Rāhnamā yā Tārīkh va Towsīf Darbār-e Velāyatmadār-e Razavī. Tehran: Bank-e Melli, 1348/1969.Google Scholar
Monzavi, Ahmad, Fehrest-e Noskhehha-ye Khatti-ye Fars. 6 vols. Tehran: Mo'asesseh-ye Farhangi-ye Mantaqeh'i, 1348–53.Google Scholar
Najmābādī, Mahmūd, Tārīkh-e tebb dar Irān pas az Eslām. Tehran: Dāneshgāh, 1353/1974.Google Scholar
Nasīrī, Mīrzā Naqī. Titles and Emoluments in Safavid Iran. Trans. and annotated by Floor, Willem. Washington, DC: MAGE, 2008.Google Scholar
Neligan, A.R., “Public Health in Persia, 1914–24.” The Lancet Part I; Part II, March 27(1926): 690–694; Part III, April 3: 742–744. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)93300-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nezām al-Saltaneh. Khāterāt va asnād-e Hoseyn Qolī Khān Nezām al-Saltaneh Māfī. 2 vols. Ed. Nezām Māfī, Mansūreh, Saʿdvandiyān, Sīrūs, and Rāmpīsheh, Hamīd. Tehran: Nashr-e Now, 1361.Google Scholar
Pahlavi, Farah, An Enduring Love: My Life with the Shah. New York: Miramax, 2005.Google Scholar
Polak, J.E., “Lepra in Persien.” Virchows Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie 27(1863): 175–180. doi: 10.1007/BF01938526CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Polak, J.E., Persien, das Land und seine Bewohner. 2 vols. Leipzig: F.A. Brockhaus, 1865.Google Scholar
Presbyterian Church. Seventh Annual Report of the Board of National Missions of the Presbyterian Church in the USA. New York: Presbyterian Church, USA, 1930.Google Scholar
Rasooli, Jay M., and Allen, Cady H. The Life Story of Dr. Saʿeed of Iran. Grand Rapids, MI: Grand Rapids International Publications, 1958.Google Scholar
Robbins, Gwen, Mushrif Tripathy, V., Misra, V.N., Mohanty, R.K., Shinde, V.S., Gray, Kelsey M., and Schug, Malcolm D. “Ancient Skeletal Evidence for Leprosy in India (2000 B.C.).” PLoS ONE 4(2009): e5669. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0005669Google Scholar
Schug, Robbins, K, G. Blevins, Elaine, Cox, Brett, Gray, Kelsey, and Mushrif-Tripathy, Veena. “Infection, Disease, and Biosocial Process at the End of the Indus Civilization.” PLoS ONE 0084814 (2013): e84814. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0084814Google Scholar
Römer, R., “Le Lèpre.” Bulletin de l’Académie royale de médecine de Belgique 20(1906): 99–165.Google Scholar
Rusta'i, Mohsen, Tarikh-e Tebb va Tebabat dar Irān. 2 vols. Tehran: Asnad-e Melli, 1382.Google Scholar
Schlimmer, Joh L., Terminologie Medico-Pharmaceutique. Tehran: Daneshgah, 1970.Google Scholar
Spigelman, M., and Donoghue, H.D. “Unusual Pathological Condition in the Lower Extremities of a Skeleton from Ancient Israel.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 114(2001): 92–93. doi: 10.1002/1096-8644(200101)114:1<92::AID-AJPA1008>3.0.CO;2-V3.0.CO;2-V>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teixeira, Pedro, The Travels of Pedro Teixeira with his “Kings of Harmuz.” Nendeln: Kraus Reprint, 1991.Google Scholar
Ussher, John, A Journey from London to Persepolis. London: Hurst and Blackett, 1865.Google Scholar
Vaqayeʿ-ye Ettefaqiyeh. 4 vols. Tehran: Ketabkhanehye Melli, 1373–74/1994–95.Google Scholar
Vaume, Dr, “La lèpre dans le Kurdistan Persan.” Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie de Lyon 5(1866): 158–162. doi: 10.3406/linly.1886.16273CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vinkhuijzen, H.J., De melaatschheid: vooral met betrekking tot hare oorzaken en verhouding in de maatschappij. The Hague: van Cleef, 1868.Google Scholar
Wilson, S.G., Persian Life and Customs. New York: FlemingH. Revell, 1895.Google Scholar
Wilson, S.G., Persia: Western Mission. Philadelphia, PA: Presbyterian Board of Publication, 1896.Google Scholar
Watelin, Louis-Charles, La Perse Immobile. Paris: Chapelot, 1921.Google Scholar
Wolff, Joseph, Travels and Adventures of the Rev. Joseph Wolff. London: Saunders, Otley and Co, 1860–61.Google Scholar
Zambaco, Pacha, and Alexandre, Démétrius. La lèpre a travers les siècles et les contrées. Paris: Masson & Cie, 1924.Google Scholar