The introduction of swine (Sus scrofa) has adversely affected the environment of many natural habitats throughout the world. Basin marshes are dwindling ecosystems in Florida that are especially vulnerable to damage by feral swine. In January 2003, the estimated amount of swine damage to the exposed portion of the last remnant of a basin marsh system in Savannas Preserve State Park (SPSP) was 19% (an area of 5 ha). Economic valuations for the swine damage were based on the monetary amounts that wetland regulators have allowed permit applicants to spend in mitigation attempts to replace lost wetland resources. In 2003, the area of natural habitat damaged by swine had a total value of US$ 1 238 760–4 036 290. The SPSP implemented a contract for swine control throughout 2003 in all areas of the Park. The damage to the basin marsh was re-estimated in January 2004, after swine removal. The damage sampling transects remained the same as the 2003 survey, but damage was significantly reduced, with 31% of sampling transects showing damage in January 2004 versus 92% in January 2003. Similarly, the total area of swine damage had decreased to 0.95 ha, and the value of the lost habitat had been reduced to US$ 235 355–766 865, an economic benefit of US$ 1 003 355–3 269 265. The benefit-cost ratio (BCR) relating the economic value of the damage reduction against the swine control costs (not all swine control in the park was carried out in the vicinity of the basin marsh) was conservatively estimated at 134–436. When estimating costs for swine control in the vicinity of the marsh based on the proportional number of swine removed there as compared to the Park as a whole, the BCR increased to 480–1562. Benefits of swine removal are very high relative to the costs of control.

Local user perceptions of resource trajectory and indicators of protected area outcomes can be useful in the assessment of integrated conservation projects, both marine and terrestrial. In-depth stakeholder surveys using 12 performance indicators were used to evaluate the perceived outcomes of the Sagay Marine Reserve (SMR), the Philippines. These indicators were a measure of whether the SMR had achieved its management objectives in the recent past and what local stakeholders expected in the future. The respondents' contextual situation could be correlated with their perceptions of SMR indicators. There was a generally high level of perceived equity and efficiency of SMR management outcomes, but the sustainability of the SMR, particularly the condition of the fisheries, had been poor over the previous 10 years. Few anticipated an improvement in sustainability indicators over the next 10 years. Respondents from an island village within the SMR had more negative (or less positive) perceptions of SMR outcomes because of their high dependence on the degraded resource, combined with physical and economic isolation. Specific remedies to enhance island villagers' satisfaction, such as greater participation, empowerment, alternative economic opportunities and fisheries protection, and replenishment, are necessary. This research serves as an example of how indicators perceived by local resource-accessing stakeholders can and should be main components of both marine and terrestrial protected area assessment.

Palsa mires are northern mire complexes with permanently frozen peat hummocks. These are degrading throughout their distribution range, probably because of regional climatic warming. This review of the current understanding of the geographical, climatic and biological characteristics of palsa mires focuses on Europe. Recent studies have reported a drastic decrease in the extent of palsa mires in Fennoscandia; in Finland, the distribution of palsas was formerly about three times that at present. With continued or accelerated warming, as predicted for high latitudes, further extensive degradation or the wholesale disappearance of palsa mires seems inevitable. Palsa mires are known to be biologically heterogeneous environments with a rich diversity of bird species, and they are listed as a priority habitat type by the European Union. However, their role as habitats for other organisms is still poorly understood. There is urgent need for research and monitoring to assess the ecological and biological consequences of the decline of palsa mires in Europe.

In response to significant elephant population declines in the 1970s and 1980s because of poaching for ivory, the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) banned the international trade in Asian and African elephant species by listing them on Appendix I in 1973 and 1989, respectively. Many southern African countries disagreed with the African elephant trade ban and have continued to argue against it since the mid-1980s. They maintain that their governments practise sound wildlife management policies and actions and, as a consequence, their national elephant populations have reached unsustainable size. They argue that they should not be penalized because other countries cannot manage their wildlife. Further, they say they need the proceeds from ivory and other by-product sales to finance conservation efforts. In 1997, the CITES Conference of Parties voted to allow Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe to auction off 50 tonnes of government ivory stockpiles to Japanese traders on a one-off experimental basis, which took place in 1999. Ivory trade opponents allege that this sale stimulated ivory demand, resulting in a surge of elephant poaching. Nevertheless, CITES voted again in 2002 to allow Botswana, Namibia and South Africa to auction off another 60 tonnes of ivory after May 2004. Trade opponents have launched an active campaign to prevent the sales, warning that they could provoke a renewed elephant holocaust. This paper reviews available quantitative evidence on ivory trade and elephant killing to evaluate the arguments of the ivory trade proponents and opponents. The evidence supports the view that the trade bans resulted generally in lower levels of ivory market scale and elephant poaching than prevailed prior to 1990. There is little evidence to support claims that the 1999 southern African ivory auctions stimulated ivory demand or elephant poaching. Levels of elephant poaching and illegal ivory trading in a country are more likely to be related to wildlife management practices, law enforcement and corruption than to choice of CITES appendix listings and consequent extent of trade restrictions. Elephant conservation and public welfare can be better served by legal ivory trade than by a trade ban, but until demand for ivory can be restrained and various monitoring and regulation measures are put into place it is premature for CITES to permit ivory sales.

Analysis of ecological baseline data collected for key resource species within the Galapagos Marine Reserve indicates that variation in animal density associated with the location of fully protected zones can be comparable to protected area effects. Even with a high level of interspersion between conservation, tourism and fishing management zones, major differences in densities of economically important species were evident between zone types prior to enforcement of fishing restrictions. Densities of the most valuable fishery resource, sea cucumbers, were three times higher in zones that remained open to fishing compared to ‘no-take’ conservation zones, and densities of sharks were five times higher in tourism zones than fishing or conservation zones. These results highlight bias in the socio-political processes that can accompany selection of marine protected areas, where fishers attempt to minimize perceived impacts on their livelihood by locating large protected zones in resource-poor areas, and tourism operators and sport divers argue for protection of areas containing atypically-interesting features. Bias in the location of fully protected zones can seriously confound ‘control-impact’ field investigations when data prior to prohibitions on fishing are lacking, including meta-analyses, which are dominated by such potentially systematically biased studies.

The application of no-take marine reserve status to an area is expected to increase abundance and average size of individuals of species targeted by fisheries. The majority of the evidence supporting such expectations still involves comparisons of abundance at the one time of sites with and without marine reserve protection. Very few studies have data on the abundance and size structure of species targeted by fisheries in an area before reserve status is applied. Quantitative estimates of density and biomass of coral trout, Plectropomus spp., the major target of the hook and line fisheries on the Great Barrier Reef (GBR), Australia, on inshore fringing reefs of the Palm and Whitsunday Island groups, central GBR, are provided for 3–4 years before (1983–1984), and 12–13 years after (1999–2000) the establishment of no-take reserves in 1987. Quantitative estimates of density and biomass of coral trout in areas open to fishing were also collected in 1999–2000 at these two island groups. Density and biomass of coral trout increased significantly (by factors of 5.9 and 6.3 in the Palm Islands, and 4.0 and 6.2 in the Whitsunday Islands) in the reserve sites, but not the fished sites, between 1983–1984 and 1999–2000. In 1999–2000, density and biomass of coral trout and a secondary target of the fisheries, Lutjanus carponotatus, were significantly higher in the protected zones than in the fished zones at both island groups. The density and biomass of non-target fish species (Labridae, Siganidae and Chaetodontidae) did not differ significantly between reserve and fished zones at either island group. This is the most convincing data to date that the management zoning of the world's largest marine park has been effective, at least for coral trout on inshore reefs.

Rising demand for medicinal plants has led to increased pressure on wild plant populations. This, combined with shrinking habitats, means that many species in South Africa are now facing local extinction. In 1997, a study was initiated to determine the extent of trade in medicinal plants in the South African Lowveld (the low lying plains to the east of the Drakensberg escarpment), and to investigate socio-economic factors influencing trade and resource management. Trade was not as extensive in the Lowveld as in major urban markets such as Durban or the Witwatersrand (Johannesburg and surrounding towns), either in terms of the quantity, number or range of species sold, or the numbers of people relying on the trade for an income. In markets assessed in Mpumalanga Province, 176 species were identified (71% of the vernacular names encountered in the market place), representing 69 plant families. In Limpopo, 70 different species were identified (84% of the vernacular names encountered in the market place), representing 40 families. Imports were significant in Mpumalanga (33% of the plants on offer), mainly from Mozambique. A detrended correspondence analysis showed substantial differences between species traded in Mpumalanga and those sold in Limpopo. There was little variation in the species stocked by vendors in Mpumalanga, regardless of the season, the attributes of the seller, or whether business was carried out in urban or rural areas. In contrast, there was considerable variation in the stock inventories of the Limpopo traders. Despite the lower levels of local trade, increased harvesting pressure is being experienced regionally, to meet demand in metropolitan centres such as the Witwatersrand. This study showed considerable local variation and complexities in the harvesting and marketing of medicinal plants, with both a national and an international dimension. This dual spatial scale presents both opportunities and challenges in the management of these plants, which need to be addressed simultaneously, particularly with respect to research requirements and development of predictive models and capacity. Cooperation in conservation strategies and policies is required at regional, national and international levels, while ensuring that management initiatives take into account local market conditions and the socio-economic realities facing both consumers and those who depend on the trade for their livelihoods.

It is necessary to fully understand the economic conditions of local herders in order to find solutions to the conflicts between wildlife conservation and livestock rearing in remote areas of low-income countries. In the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area (KCA), Nepal, livestock depredation by snow leopards impacts on yak herders' livelihoods. Retaliatory killings of snow leopard by the herders have been reported and the concerned authorities recently initiated snow leopard conservation programmes. In 2001, interviews with the yak herders who used the pastures in the Ghunsa valley in the preceding year collected data on the incidence of livestock death caused by snow leopards. The annual net cash income of the yak herders was estimated by obtaining baseline values of sales and expenditure per livestock head through field measurement of dairy products and interviews with a sample of herders. As yet, the average annual damage does not appear to have adversely affected fundamental livelihoods in households with an average herd size (36.6 head). However, in the worst scenario of livestock depredation, households with medium or small-sized herds (<40 head) might risk their living conditions becoming unsustainable or having to withdraw from yak pastoralism. A supplementary interview showed that the majority of the herders, except those who took completely neutral attitudes towards the regional conservation and development programme, had negative views of the snow leopard conservation policy. For the snow leopard conservation programme in the KCA to be a success, there must be a system to compensate the herders' households for livestock damage.

In the semi-arid rangelands of the Oshana ecosystem in Northern Namibia, there are general concerns that artificial water points for domestic use contribute to the processes that lead to desertification. The processes begin in piospheres of artificial water points. Among the processes suggested to correlate with radial distance and age of water points are loss of perennial grass species, an increase in annuals, and general loss of herbaceous species richness, herbaceous biomass and grass cover, as well as an increase in forb cover and in bare ground and litter cover. Radial distance and age of artificial water points impacts were compared using these indicators with benchmarks in saline grassland and mopane landscape at the end of the wet season. Radial distance influenced herbaceous species richness, grass cover and bare ground, while the variability of the perennial:annual grass ratio, herbaceous biomass, forb and litter cover were attributed to differences between landscape types. Age of water points influenced only herbaceous species richness, while forb cover was associated more with water points than benchmarks. Forb cover was sporadic in relation to age of water points. In the Oshana ecosystem, therefore, radial-grazing distance could not be used to explain changes in the perennial:annual grass ratio. Many of the changes were explained by differences between landscape types. The mopane landscape was more vulnerable to degradation induced by artificial water points than the grassland landscape. The implication is that, in the future, greater care should be taken to space water points in the mopane landscape.

A unique assemblage of tropical and temperate marine organisms characterizes the Houtman Abrolhos Islands, four clusters of islands and reefs off the coast of mid-Western Australia. Four reef observation areas or marine protected areas (MPAs) were established in 1994 to examine their value in protecting vulnerable reef fish species, including the sub-tropical wrasse, Choerodon rubescens, and the coral trout, Plectropomus leopardus. In 1993 and 1994 (prior to protection), population densities and body sizes were monitored at two island groups (Easter and Wallabi). At each location, the MPAs and the equivalent ‘control’ areas to remain open to fishing were monitored by underwater visual censuses. These closed and open areas were subsequently monitored four more times between 1995 and 2002 to assess long-term trends in abundance and population structure. Populations of the wrasse, C. rubescens, did not appear to respond to protection, exhibiting irregular fluctuations in both closed and open areas throughout the study. In contrast, although there were no significant increases for P. leopardus for the first three years of closure, after eight years of protection there were significantly larger numbers of P. leopardus in the closed areas. There was a three-fold increase at the Easter Group and a seven-fold increase at the Wallabi Group, relative to open fishing areas, attributed primarily to reduced fishing mortality. Significant closed areas (17% of the P. leopardus habitat) provided substantial stock-wide impacts. The data also indicate that the MPAs can be effective where some forms of fishing (such as lobster fishing) are permitted which are compatible with the objectives of the MPA. While MPAs are clearly an effective tool for increasing the local abundance of some reef fishes, the spatial and temporal scales required for their success may vary among species.

A conservation project aimed at ecosystem restoration had several unforeseen effects on a colony of the yellow-legged gull Larus michahellis in a small western Mediterranean island (Benidorm Island). The project included regulation of massive tourist visits to help restore the soil and autochthonous vegetation. However, gulls habituated rapidly to regulation of tourist activities, as nests located either close to or far from the main trail showed a similar hatching success. The quiet conditions produced by regulation seemingly facilitated a rapid colony increase. Partial removal of alien vegetation (Opuntia maxima) showed that gulls had a preference for sites with high vegetation cover because the growth of the colony was proportionally larger in well-vegetated plots. The pricking of a large number of gull eggs surprisingly coincided with a high reproductive success compared to the previous year, although indicators of food availability remained constant between years and the colony had decreased in numbers. Untreated nests were probably more successful because territory size for chicks increased and intraspecific predation decreased. Extreme care must be taken when planning ecosystem-wide management on islands with yellow-legged gull colonies, or other gull species locally considered as pests, to prevent unwanted effects.

Municipal effluent is becoming an increasing environmental threat and needs appropriate disposal measures to safeguard soil and environmental quality. As an important source of water and nutrients, municipal effluent could be used to increase productivity in nutrient deficient dry areas. Acacia nilotica L. (Babool) seedlings were grown using municipal effluent. Five treatments comprised: irrigation of soil (without seedlings) with municipal effluent at potential evapotranspiration (PET) (treatment T1), irrigation of seedlings at 0.5 PET (T2), PET (T3), and 2 PET (T4), and canal water irrigation of seedlings at PET (T5). Seedlings in the T3 and T4 treatments attained greater height and collar diameter, and produced 22% and 54% more biomass than those in T5. After 24 months, biomass production was 7.43–12.96 t ha−1 as compared to 5.73 t ha−1 in T5. Nutrient concentrations in the seedlings were positively correlated with effluent quantity (r = 0.82, p < 0.01), being greater in foliage than in stems and roots. Uptake of nitrogen (N) was 2.70%, and of iron (Fe) 0.11%, of seedling biomass. Relative increase in metal concentration was greater than that in nutrients. The availability of potassium (K), copper (Cu), Fe, manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn) in the soil increased twofold and that of NH4-N and PO4-P by 4.5- and 7.9-fold, respectively, in T4 relative to T5. Available NH4-N, PO4-P, Mg and K were highest in the 0–15 cm depth soil, whereas NO3-N, Na, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn availability were highest in deeper soil layers. Relatively low soil nutrients in T3 compared to T1 indicated withdrawal and accumulation of these nutrients in the seedlings. In several respects municipal effluent benefited A. nilotica seedlings and soil properties, and produced 5.59–12.96 t ha−1 dry biomass. Municipal effluent could help to meet the fuel need of suburban areas, although long-term application of effluent would lead to metal accumulation in soil and plants.

The dry tropical ecosystems are among the world's most threatened, and the dry deciduous forest of northern India is being progressively converted to scrub, savannah and grasslands through industrialization, agriculture, fuelwood collection, lopping of trees for fodder and severe grazing/browsing. This habitat destruction threatens the survival of many species. This study examined the demographic instability of tree species in 3-ha permanent plots: at five sites differing in the degree of disturbance. Based on the proportion of seedlings of a species in its total population (seedling + sapling + adults), about 52% of the total 65 species exhibited local demographic instability, and at one or more sites a single individual represented 10 species. The increase in the proportion of declining species with increase in disturbance intensity indicated that local anthropogenic pressure is responsible for the depletion. Apart from stronger protection measures, it is necessary to encourage fuelwood plantations, develop village pastures and reduce livestock numbers.

There is increased international interest in religiously based restrictions on land and forest stand use. However, the extent to which so-called sacred groves represent earlier forest ecosystems, and their possible role in biodiversity conservation, are interrelated and complex issues, and neglected in the context of Ghanaian savannahs, which are believed to be in transition from a forested past. Geographical information system (GIS) analysis of time-series images, aerial photographs, statistical analysis of ecological field data and social surveys were used to investigate the Ghanaian savannah. Sacred groves were found to be similar in plant species content and structure to the deciduous forest of southern Ghana. Between 1960 and 1996, these groves experienced far fewer forest losses than unprotected tree stands (<20%, as opposed to up to 100%). Non-sacred groves also contained lower plant species richness and higher numbers of invasive species such as neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss). Sacred groves, while dependent on respect for religion, local cultural structures and individual peer pressure, offer a role that may support and also be supported by official conservation efforts.

Global trade in marine ornamental species includes numerous countries; however, 80% of the trade involves exports from the Philippines and Indonesia to the USA. The worldwide import value of marine ornamentals is estimated at US$ 200–330 million annually. Recent concern regarding sustainability and environmental impacts on coral reefs where collection occurs has spurred debate as to how best to monitor, manage and regulate the industry. A certification programme proposed by the Marine Aquarium Council (MAC) has the potential to manage the trade efficiently by minimizing environmental impacts, thus continuing this important source of income for impoverished coastal villagers. The MAC Ecosystem and Fishery Management (EFM) Standard was established to protect fish stocks from overexploitation and will be the most difficult component of the certification programme to implement. Prerequisites for successful EFM in developing nations are local control over fisheries and accurate records to monitor catch. Collector logs were found to be a useful tool to monitor both catch per unit effort (CPUE) and catch composition from collection areas in the Philippines. Comparison of catch composition in two distinct regions of the Philippines indicated that one site was severely overfished while the other was moderately overfished. The Collection Area Management Plan required by the MAC certification programme, combined with the current legal framework in the Philippines allowing for local jurisdiction of reef resources, has the potential to prevent further overfishing in the latter region. Until sufficient ecological data can be obtained, CPUE can provide an effective means to monitor and manage the fishery within the framework of the MAC certification programme. Despite effective management plans in source nations, legislation in receiving nations may be required to help stimulate a strong market demand for certified ornamentals if the MAC certification programme is to be successful.

Loss of wildlife, encroachment on wild lands and conflicts between protected areas and neighbouring communities continue to threaten the integrity of protected areas (PAs) in Uganda. To increase support from local communities and ensure long-term sustainability for Uganda's PAs, a policy of community-based conservation was introduced in 1988 as a management approach in seven PAs. The effectiveness of the community-based approach for reducing threats was compared to conventional PA management by conducting a threat reduction assessment at 16 PAs, seven with community-based approaches and nine without. Additional data collected using document reviews, interviews with government officials, and surveys of PA wardens were compared with the threat reduction assessments. Twenty-three primary threats were identified at PAs. Local game poaching was the most common threat. The threat reduction assessment indices of community-based PAs (mean=49.0±12) were not significantly different from those of conventional PAs (mean=37.96±21.6). Some specific threats, such as bush burning, logging, encroachment and unclear boundaries, seemed to be better mitigated at community-based PAs. Management approaches at all PAs mitigated fewer than half of the identified threats. Management approaches are needed that directly target PA threats, go beyond PA boundaries by involving additional government departments, link people's livelihoods to conservation efforts and strengthen PA institutions.

Selective harvest has become a dominant method of commercial logging in tropical rainforests of the Asia-Pacific region. Although it has usually been recognized that this method minimizes the impact on forest because of the limited number of trees harvested and slight effects on growth of unharvested trees, recent reports suggest that its damage is potentially serious. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of a selective logging operation in 1993–1994 on customary land (2024 ha) of New Georgia Island, Solomon Islands. Geo-referenced IKONOS panchromatic (1-m resolution) and multispectral (4-m resolution) images from 2002 (the post-logging period) and aerial photographs (2.5 m pixels, original scale: 1:25 000) from 1991 (the pre-logging period) were analysed by means of supervised classification and on-screen visual interpretation, in association with detailed field observation. The area deforested by selective logging was 88 ha (95% confidence limits: 79–98 ha), accounting for 7.4% of the original forest and thus causing substantial damage.

The ecological footprint (EF) can be used to investigate relationships between population, environment and development. In China, the per caput EF is estimated to have increased by 83% between 1981 (0.82 ha caput-1) and 2000 (1.49 ha caput-1), to about 1.31 times China's area (including its oceanic territory), while the ecological deficit increased from 0.066 ha caput-1 in 1981 to 0.735 ha caput-1 in 2000. Over this period, the proportions of six sub-footprint types have changed considerably: the percentages of arable, fossil energy and forest land decreased from 44.8%, 41.5% and 4.1% to 27.1%, 40.1% and 3.0%, respectively; while sea, pasture and built-up land percentages increased from 3.8%, 4.4% and 1.3% to 15.2%, 12.4% and 2.2%, respectively. The production coefficients of gross domestic product (GDP) to the EF of China increased from 584 RMB ha-1 in 1981, to 1522 RMB ha-1 in 2000, reflecting an increasing efficiency in resource use. The EF correlates positively with disposable income and expenditure, which can be described by income and expenditure elasticity. Some measures are suggested to decrease the Chinese ecological deficit on the road to sustainability.