Piglet mortality is a major problem in organic pig production affecting both farm economy and animal welfare. Knowledge is scarce on the risk factors of piglet mortality in Danish commercial organic pig production. The objectives of this study were to evaluate season, litter size, parity, sow body condition and stillborn littermates as risk factors for early piglet mortality and crushing of liveborn piglets from parturition until castration at day 3 to 5 postpartum (pp). The study was conducted over a 1-year period in nine commercial Danish organic pig herds practicing outdoor farrowing all year round. Data included recordings on 3393 farrowings with 50 284 liveborn piglets of which 14.8% died before castration. A subset of the dead piglets were collected and necropsied to identify crushed piglets. The average number of liveborn piglets per litter was 14.8 (SD=3.7) and the average time from parturition until castration was 4.1 (SD=1.7) days. A negative binomial regression analysis was used to model the effect of the predictive variables on the early piglet mortality accounting for different time periods from parturition to castration. An increase in maternal body condition score (BCS) and parity significantly increased the risk of dying between parturition and castration. Early mortality was found to be lowest during spring (March to May) and highest during summer (June to August). Being born into a litter with one or more stillborn littermates increased the risk of early mortality. The risk factors for crushing of piglets were evaluated using a logistic analysis. A significant effect of parity and litter size was found where the odds of at least one piglet in a litter with mortality was diagnosed as crushed increased with increasing parity and litter size. In conclusion, being born during summer (June to August), high parity and maternal BCS and stillborn littermates were found to be risk factors for piglet mortality between parturition and castration. In addition, parity and increasing litter size were found to be risk factors for crushing of piglets in litters with mortality.

The present study aimed to evaluate trace mineral status of organic dairy herds in northern Spain and the sources of minerals in different types of feed. Blood samples from organic and conventional dairy cattle and feed samples from the respective farms were analysed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry to determine the concentrations of the essential trace elements (cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), iodine (I), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), selenium (Se) and zinc (Zn)) and toxic trace elements (arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg) and lead (Pb)). Overall, no differences between organic and conventional farms were detected in serum concentrations of essential and toxic trace elements (except for higher concentrations of Cd on the organic farms), although a high level of inter-farm variation was detected in the organic systems, indicating that organic production greatly depends on the specific local conditions. The dietary concentrations of the essential trace elements I, Cu, Se and Zn were significantly higher in the conventional than in the organic systems, which can be attributed to the high concentration of these minerals in the concentrate feed. No differences in the concentrations of trace minerals were found in the other types of feed. Multivariate chemometric analysis was conducted to determine the contribution of different feed sources to the trace element status of the cattle. Concentrate samples were mainly associated with Co, Cu, I, Se and Zn (i.e. with the elements supplemented in this type of feed). However, pasture and grass silage were associated with soil-derived elements (As, Cr, Fe and Pb) which cattle may thus ingest during grazing.

The aim of this study was to, from a holistic perspective, describe the effects of a forage-only feeding system and a conventional training program on young Standardbred horses and compare data with similar observations from the literature. Sixteen Standardbred colts fed a forage-only diet for 4 months from breaking (August to December) and with the goal to vigorously trot 5 to 7 km at a speed of 5.6 m/s (3 min/km) were studied. The horses were fed grass haylage (56 to 61% dry matter (DM), 2.80 to 3.02 Mcal DE/kg DM and 130 to 152 g CP/kg DM) ad libitum, 1 kg of a lucerne product and minerals. The amount of training and number of training sessions were documented daily, and feed intake and body development were measured once every month. Heart rate (HR) was measured during and after a standardized exercise test in October and December. In December, a postexercise venous blood sample was collected and analyzed for plasma lactate concentration. Muscle biopsies (m. gluteus medius) were taken and analyzed for glycogen and fiber composition. Health was assessed in October and November by an independent veterinarian using a standardized health scoring protocol. BW and height at withers increased from 402 to 453 kg (root mean square error (RMSE) 6) and from 148.7 to 154.1 cm (RMSE 0.7), respectively, and the body condition score was 4.9 (RMSE 0.2) at the end of the study. Muscle glycogen content was 532 mmol/kg dry weight (s.d. 56). There was a significant decrease in postexercise HR (81 v. 73 bpm, RMSE 8), and the individual amount of training was negatively correlated with HR during and after exercise. Health scores were high and similar at both assessments (8.4 and 8.4 (RMSE 1.0) out of 10; P > 0.05), and the number of lost training days per month due to health problems was <0.9, with the exception of November (5.3 days). It is concluded that yearlings in training fed high-energy forage ad libitum can reach a conventional training goal and grow at least as well as earlier observations on yearlings of other light breeds.

Four bales of hay were chosen from a stack of hay, barn-stored for 6 months. Each bale was subdivided into four 2·5 kg sections and one section from each bale was subjected to one of four water soaking treatments: 0, 0·5, 3 or 12 h. Post treatment, the samples were shaken for 9 min under a Negretti LS45F personal dust sampler which sampled the surrounding air. The samples were than analysed for levels of respirable particules < 5 μm in size and for amounts of sodium (Na), potassium (K), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca) and nitrogen (N). Soaking for 30 min reduced the number of respirable particles by about 90% but also reduced the Na, K and P content of the hay. Soaking for a longer period, at least up to 12 h, did not give a significant further reduction in number of respirable particles but there was loss of Mg and further losses in Na, K, and P. These results clearly indicate that soaking for 30 min is sufficient to reduce the respirable challenge with minimum nutrient loss.

Following weaning of their first litter at 42 days post partum, 36 Landrace × (Landrace × Large White) sows were fasted for 24 hr then allocated to one of three feed levels, 1·8, 2·7 and 3·6 kg food/day, until the day after mating. During pregnancy all the sows received 1·8 kg food/day.

The incidence of infertility and anoestrus was greatest for sows fed 1·8 kg/day and least for sows fed 3·6 kg·day. Sows fed 1·8 kg/day took significantly (P < 0·01) longer (21·6 + 3·0 days) to return to oestrus than sows fed 3·6 kg/day (9·2 ± 2·2 days). The mean litter size for sows fed 1·8, 2·7 and 3·6 kg food/day was 9·4 ± 0·9, 10·1 ± 0·8 and 11·5 ± 0·6 piglets respectively, but these differences were not significant.

Cloning of cattle from embryos has been achieved by nuclear transfer. Repeated cloning to produce large clones of genetically identical individuals for commercial use may soon become possible. The main advantage in breeding will come from identifying and using superior clones, selected to fit particular husbandry and marketing niches. Two types of cattle clones will be required, terminal clones chosen for economic merit in production traits, such as growth and carcass traits, and maternal clones chosen for reproduction and maternal traits, such as short calving interval, ease of calving, milking and mothering ability and small mature size. Clonal selection and use will provide several steps of improvement. An initial gain will come by recruiting clones from elite stocks and further responses by selecting the best clones for commercial use. This will reverse the normal improvement lag between breeding and commercial stocks. Heterosis will also be exploited by using crossline clones. For continuous genetic improvement, genetic variation will be maintained by breeding the next generation from a number of selected male and female clones and testing and selecting their progeny, the new set of clones, as before. For maximum improvement rates, both male and female clones will need to be tested. In the short term (5 to 10 years), benefits will come from testing a large number of clones by which gains in economic merit of proportionately 0·15 to 0·30 of the mean can be achieved. Further improvements will come by rebreeding the best clones and testing and selecting the new set of clones from which annual genetic response rates of proportionately 0·02 to 0·03 per year are possible. Cloning thus offers considerable advantages in the improvement of beef cattle.

Sixty-four Azawak male weaned calves were allotted to eight treatments (T) in two trials to study the effect of timing (day or day-and-night) and duration of grazing on diet selection, faecal output, eating time, forage intake and weight changes. Grazing time during the day was 6 h for T 1, 2 and 3; 9 h for T 4, 5 and 6; and 12 h for T 7 and 8. Night grazing time was 0 h for T 1, 4 and 7; 3 h for T 2, 5 and 8; and 6 h for T 3 and 6. The trials were conducted from July 1995 to May 1996 covering the wet (WS), early dry (EDS) and late dry (LDS) seasons. Eight oesophageally fistulated steers were used in a cross-over design to sample the diet selected by day-grazers (D1) and by day-and-night-grazers during the day (D2) and at night (N2). Forage intake was determined from individual data on faecal output from all the calves and means of in vitro organic matter digestibility of extrusa of the fistulated steers. Water intake and eating time were measured in LDS. In WS there were no differences (P > 0·05) in the quality of the diet (extrusa) selected for D1, D2 and N2. In LDS, crude protein content for D1 was lower than for D2 (73 v . 79 (s.e. 2) g/kg dry matter, P < 0·05). In all seasons, faecal output and forage intake increased with total duration of grazing. Total time spent eating increased linearly with increasing total time allowed for grazing. These results suggest that allowing additional grazing time during the night leads to increased forage intake and consequently provides an opportunity for better animal production, especially in the dry season.

A two-factorial experiment was conducted in order to quantify and distinguish the influences of altitude and forage origin on metabolism and milk synthesis of dairy cows kept at Alpine locations. Each of four experimental groups comprised six dairy cows in early to mid lactation which were kept tethered in barns at altitudes of either 2000 (Alpine) or 400 m above sea level (a.s.l.) (lowland). Two groups (Alpine and lowland) received hay ad libitum, a third group kept in the lowlands was pair-fed to the Alpine group and a control group was offered silages and concentrates according to milk yield. Two hay types, with origin either from 2000 or 400 m a.s.l., were offered to all hay-alone groups following a change-over design over three 21-day periods. Transferring cows to high altitude triggered a complex adaptation process, which resulted in depressions of food intake at the beginning of the experiment and changed plasma levels of metabolic traits indicating an energy deficit. On average over the entire experiment, high altitude sojourn elevated plasma β-hydroxybutyrate and decreased plasma glucose levels. Yields of milk and of main milk constituents were not significantly affected, but milk protein content was reduced in both the Alpine and in the pair-fed group. No generally elevated maintenance requirements as a consequence of hypoxia were found. Hay-alone feeding caused a co-limitation of net energy and absorbable protein in both hay types which was almost completely compensated by a reduction of milk yield. The hay of Alpine origin had a lower digestibility and crude protein content than the lowland hay which resulted in changes in blood plasma traits and a further suppression of milk yield and milk protein and lactose contents. Due to the low N content of the Alpine hay, N utilization for milk protein synthesis remained similar to that found with lowland hay, and manure N of these cows contained the lowest proportion of easily-volatile urine N. In conclusion, forage origin in conjunction with diet type seems to explain the major part of the adverse effects that the Alpine sojourn exerts on lactating dairy cows while the effects of hypoxia appear to be of lesser importance.

1. Many apparently normal nursings occur in the absence of milk ejection, but little is known about their frequency or causes. The present paper reports an observational study in which the incidence of these incomplete nursings was studied in detail.

2. Nine lactating sows were studied throughout a 5-week lactation in each of two environments. One was a normal commercial farrowing house, and the other a cubicle in which the sow and litter were effectively alone. Extended (3 h) observations were made on each litter at various ages.

3. Twenty-seven per cent of all nursings were found to be incomplete with little difference between the grouped and alone sows. Incomplete nursings often occurred within 40 min of a complete nursing and increased the interval between successive complete nursings. They also occurred most frequently during the 2nd and 3rd weeks post partum.

4. Irrespective of the housing condition the sows initiated the same proportion of all nursings and a similar percentage of these were incomplete.

5. Incomplete nursings appear not to be an artefact caused by crowding many lactating sows together, but they may reflect some form of discomfort of the sow. The problem of real and apparent nursing intervals is discussed.

The short-tailed sheep, native of an area stretching from Russia to Iceland, are generally considered a primitive type. These robust northern sheep seem to have been spread by Norse vikings to several countries in this area from the late eighth century to the middle of the eleventh century ad. They have several common characteristics in addition to the fluke-shaped and tapered short tail, such as a wide range of colour patterns, dual-coated wool and the ability to thrive under harsh environmental conditions, often in isolated marginal areas. While 34 short-tailed breeds of North European origin can still be identified, it is clear that their population sizes have declined in most cases and several of them are now rare and endangered. Although these breeds have mainly been confined to certain localities, some of them have gained considerable distribution due to their genetic merits, such as prolificacy. Of these, the Finnsheep and the Romanov are best known being exported to several countries in the world where their genetic material has been utilized through crossbreeding with local sheep. This has resulted in the production of some new synthetic breeds. Meat is now generally the main product of the North European short-tailed breeds and their crossbreds, whereas wool, skins and milk are normally regarded as byproducts, yet of considerable economic importance in some cases. Such breeds have clearly a role to play in sustainable grassland-based production systems in the future.

A total of 72 male weaned pigs were used in a 110-day study to investigate the effect of feeding genetically modified (GM) Bt MON810 maize on selected growth and health indicators. It was hypothesised that in pigs fed Bt maize, growth and health are not impacted compared with pigs fed isogenic maize-based diets. Following a 12-day basal period, pigs (10.7 ± 1.9 kg body weight (BW); ∼40 days old) were blocked by weight and ancestry and randomly assigned to treatments: (1) non-GM maize diet for 110 days (non-GM), (2) GM maize diet for 110 days (GM), (3) non-GM maize diet for 30 days followed by GM maize diet up to day 110 (non-GM/GM) and (4) GM maize diet for 30 days followed by non-GM maize diet up to day 110 (GM/non-GM). BW and daily feed intake were recorded on days 0, 30, 60 and 110 (n = 15). Body composition was determined by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (n = 10) on day 80. Following slaughter on day 110, organs and intestines were weighed and sampled for histological analysis and urine was collected for biochemical analysis (n = 10). Serum biochemistry analysis was performed on days 0, 30, 60, 100 and 110. Growth performance and serum biochemistry were analysed as repeated measures with time and treatment as main factors. The slice option of SAS was used to determine treatment differences at individual time points. There was no effect of feeding GM maize on overall growth, body composition, organ and intestinal weight and histology or serum biochemistry on days 60 and 100 and on urine biochemistry on day 110. A treatment × time interaction was observed for serum urea (SU; P < 0.05), creatinine (SC; P < 0.05) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST; P < 0.05). On day 30, SU was lower for the non-GM/GM treatment compared with the non-GM, GM and GM/non-GM treatments (P < 0.05). On day 110, SC was higher for the non-GM/GM and GM/non-GM treatments compared with non-GM and GM treatments (P < 0.05). Overall, serum total protein was lower for the GM/non-GM treatment compared with the non-GM/GM treatment (P < 0.05). The magnitude of change observed in some serum biochemical parameters did not indicate organ dysfunction and the changes were not accompanied by histological lesions. Long-term feeding of GM maize to pigs did not adversely affect growth or the selected health indicators investigated.

To wean calves early and then feed them dry meal, hay and water is thought to have a number of advantages over more conventional methods of calf rearing. These advantages include: a considerable saving of milk or milk substitutes, an early build-up of the microbial population of the rumen (thus permitting the use of simple inexpensive foods), and the saving of labour concomitant with early weaning.

Accordingly, a number of small experiments were set up to test the practicability of early weaning, the effect of different dry feeds and of a variety of types of flooring for calf pens.

This trial was conducted to study the effect of livestock production system (freedom extensive system (FES) v. semi extensive system (SES)) and amount of finishing feed (1.5 v. 3.0 kg of commercial feed) in SES on carcass characteristics, meat quality and nutritional value of meat foal slaughtered at 18 months of age. For this study, a total of 49 foals (21 from FES and 28 from SES) were used. The obtained results showed that SES had a positive influence on carcass characteristic because these foals showed the best values for live weight, carcass weight, dressing percentage, perimeter of leg (PL) and carcass compactness index. On the other hand, finishing feeding also had a significant (P<0.05) effect on PL and lean thickness, as the highest values were obtained in foals finished with 3 kg of commercial fodder. The physico-chemical properties were significantly affected by the livestock production system with the exception of ashes content (P>0.05). Foals finished in SES increased in 408% the intramuscular fat content (0.23 v. 1.17%, for foals reared in FES and SES, respectively). On the other hand, L*-value and a*-value were significantly (P<0.01) affected by livestock production system, as foals from the FES group had a more intense redder color (higher CIE a*-value) and higher lightness (higher CIE L*-value) compared with those from the SES group. Finally, meat nutritional value was significantly affected by livestock production system, as foals from an extensive production system on wood pasture could be considered as healthier in relation to their fatty acid profiles (low n-6/n-3 ratio and high hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic ratio) as a result of the beneficial grass intake on meat fatty acid profile.

Extremely high nutrient loads have been reported in grazed grassland regimes compared with cutting regimes in some dairy systems that include the use of supplemental feeding. The aim of this study was, therefore, to investigate the effects on productivity and behaviour of high-yielding dairy cows with limited access to indoor feed and restriction in the time at pasture in a continuous stocking system. During a 6-week period from the start of the grazing season 2005, an experiment was conducted with the aim of investigating the effect of restrictive indoor feeding combined with limiting the time at pasture on the productivity and behaviour of high-yielding dairy cows (31.0 ± 5.4 kg energy-corrected milk) in a system based on continuous stocking. The herd was split into three groups allocated to three treatments consisting of 4, 6.5 and 9 h at pasture, respectively. Each group of cows grazed in separate paddocks with three replicates and was separately housed in a cubicle system with slatted floor during the rest of the day. All cows were fed the same amount of supplement, adjusted daily to meet the ad libitum indoor intake of the cows at pasture for nine hours. The herbage allowance was 1650 kg dry matter (DM) per ha, and the intake of supplemental feed was 9.1 kg DM per cow daily. The limitation of the time at pasture to 4 h in combination with restrictive indoor feeding reduced the daily milk, fat and protein yield and live weight compared with 9 h of access to pasture. The proportion of time during which the cows were grazing while at pasture increased from 0.64 to 0.86 and the estimated herbage intake per h at pasture decreased from 2547 g DM to1398 g DM, when time at pasture changed from 4 to 9 h. It can be concluded, that in systems with a high herbage allowance, the cow was able to compensate for 0.8 of the reduction in time at pasture by increasing the proportion of time spent grazing and presumably also both the bite rate and mass, although the latter two have not been directly confirmed in the present study.

The advent of genomic selection has led to increased interest within the cattle breeding industry to market semen from young bulls as early as possible. However, both the quantity and quality of such semen is dictated by the age at which these animals reach puberty. Enhancing early life plane of nutrition of the bull stimulates a complex biochemical interplay involving metabolic and neuroendocrine signalling and culminating in enhanced testicular growth and development and earlier onset of sexual maturation. Recent evidence suggests that an enhanced plane of nutrition leads to an advancement of testicular development in bulls at 18 weeks of age. However, as of yet, much of the neuronal mechanisms regulating these developmental processes remain to be elucidated in the bull. While early life nutrition clearly affects the sexual maturation process in bulls, there is little evidence for latent effects on semen traits post-puberty. Equally the influence of prevailing nutritional status on the fertility of mature bulls is unclear though management practices that result in clinical or even subclinical metabolic disease can undoubtedly impact upon normal sexual function. Dietary supplements enriched with various polyunsaturated fatty acids or fortified with trace elements do not consistently affect reproductive function in the bull, certainly where animals are already adequately nourished. Further insight on how nutrition mediates the biochemical interaction between neuroendocrine and testicular processes will facilitate optimisation of nutritional regimens to optimise sexual maturation and subsequent semen production in bulls.

1. Sixteen foods, made up with differing proportions of roughage and concentrates and ranging in crude protein content from approximately 2·6% to 10·0%, were each offered ad libitum to Blackhead Persian wether sheep. The nitrogen balance of the sheep and the distribution of nitrogen in the urine were measured.

2. Urinary nitrogen excretion decreased with the digestible nitrogen intake. There was a highly significant (P < 0·01) positive correlation between either excretion of urea or of allantoin and digestible nitrogen intake.

3. The amount of creatinine excreted varied little with diet but was directly related to the body weight of the sheep.

4. For 8 diets, hippurate excretion by the sheep was directly related (P<0·01) to intake of digestible nitrogen, while a significant (P<0·05) positive correlation between the same measures was found for the other 8 diets.

5. It is suggested that with certain types of diets the excretion of either nitrogen, urea or allantoin in the urine may be useful indicators of digestible nitrogen intake of low-protein diets by sheep.

Thirty male pigs weaned at 5·5 kg were used to determine the effect of diets with 164, 192 and 219 g/kg crude protein offered ad libitum to 20 kg live weight on performance and carcass characteristics during this initial phase of growth and during the period subsequent to 20 kg live weight when all pigs were fed on a diet with 181 g/kg crude protein in restrictive amounts. Between 5·5 and 20 kg live weight, pigs offered the diet with 164 g/kg crude protein grew significantly more slowly and had a significantly poorer food conversion ratio than pigs offered the two higher protein diets. Both linear fat measurement and the proportion of ether extractable material in the carcass at 20 kg live weight decreased significantly with each increase in dietary protein. Pigs offered the 164 g/kg protein diet during the initial treatment period tended to grow faster subsequent to 20 kg and during the live-weight period 20 to 45 kg had a significantly lower food conversion ratio than pigs previously offered the two higher protein diets. Over the entire production period, 5·5 to 70 kg, there were no significant differences between treatments. Likewise there were no significant differences in carcass quality parameters between treatments at 70 kg live weight.

Three experiments measured intake and assessed quality of roughage refused by individually-fed castrated Saanen goats and Suffolk × Mule wethers, aged 21 months.

In experiment 1, in which long, lucerne hay was offered (10 animals per species; 14 days) goats ate more than sheep (33·2 v. 28·3 g dry matter (DM) per kg M daily; P < 0·05). In experiment 2, in which long, ammonia-treated barley straw was offered (eight animals per species; 21 days) consumption was also higher for goats (21·6 v. 16·4 g DM per kg M daily; P < 0·01). Freshly cut, chopped stinging nettle (Urtica dioica L.) was offered with treated straw in experiment 3 (eight animals per species). Over the 10 days, intake of nettle increased linearly and that of straw decreased, but nettle consumption was consistently higher for goats than sheep.

In each experiment, food refusals (0·2 of food offered) were of lower nutritive value (lower nitrogen, higher acid detergent fibre, lower digestibility in vitro) than food offered. Throughout, food refusals by goats were of slightly higher nutritive value than food refusals by sheep.

It is concluded that both sheep and goats are selective feeders under stall-feeding conditions, but the greater intake of roughage by goats cannot be attributed to their selection of more nutritive components.

Carrying multiple foetuses leads to a decline in lamb birth weight. The rate of litter size-dependent birth weight decline (LSDBD) in a population can be obtained by calculating the linear relationship between the reciprocal of lamb's birth weight and the respective litter size. Based on published data on lamb birth weight and by using the reciprocal approach, LSDBD rate was calculated for 70 purebred and crossbred sheep populations in which birth weight of lambs born as singles ranged from 1·3 to 6·3 kg. High variability in LSDBD was found. Both genetic and environmental factors may contribute to the variability of this trait.

Sheep rearing is a traditional occupation of about 85 000 shepherd families on the Deccan plateau in the Maharashtra State of India. They rear Deccani (D) sheep which usually bear only single lambs. Prolificacy is an important trait for the efficiency of meat producing sheep. It was decided to evaluate and utilize Indian sheep genetic resources with a view to improving the efficiency of sheep production on the Deccan plateau. A crossbreeding experiment was conducted over 4 years, using rams of the D, Bannur (B) and Garole (G) breeds and D and B ewes with the aim of developing recommendations for the appropriate breed combination of a likely composite. It was found that crossing with G reduces live weight and growth rates significantly compared with D but lambs sired by G rams were more resistant to naturally acquired gastro-intestinal nematode infections and to artificial challenge with Haemonchus contortus than those sired by D or B rams. The G breed, being from a humid environment is, however, not adapted to the semi-arid Deccan plateau. The higher productivity (in terms of weight of lamb weaned) of twin-bearing ewes compared with those bearing singles was evident even in extensive rearing conditions. The finding of increased resistance to gastro-intestinal nematodes in the G breed, which also carries a major gene for prolificacy, highlights the potential for inclusion of G in a composite breed. Negative effects on growth and survival from inclusion of the Garole need to be carefully managed.