Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2brh9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T11:10:56.682Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The Street and the Ballot Box

Interactions Between Social Movements and Electoral Politics in Authoritarian Contexts

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 January 2022

Lynette H. Ong
Affiliation:
University of Toronto

Summary

How do discontented masses and opposition elites work together to engineer a change in electoral authoritarian regimes? Social movements and elections are often seen as operating in different terrains – outside and inside institutions, respectively. In this Element, I develop a theory to describe how a broad-based social movement that champions a grievance shared by a wide segment of the population can build alliances across society and opposition elites that, despite the rules of the game rigged against them, vote the incumbents out of power. The broad-based nature of the movement also contributes to the cohesion of the opposition alliance, and elite defection, which are often crucial for regime change. This Element examines the 2018 Malaysian election and a range of cases from other authoritarian regimes across Asia, Eastern Europe, and Africa to illustrate these arguments.
Get access
Type
Element
Information
Online ISBN: 9781009158268
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication: 24 February 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alibeyoglu, A. (2012, April 28). Police Violence Marks Malaysia Reform Rally. Al Jazeera. www.aljazeera.com/news/2012/4/28/police-violence-marks-malaysia-reform-rallyGoogle Scholar
Anderson, D. (2005). “Yours in Struggle for Majimbo.” Nationalism and the Party Politics of Decolonization in Kenya, 1955–64. Journal of Contemporary History, 40(3), 547564.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ang, H. (2012, May 7). Bersih 3.0 violence marks a turning point. Free Malaysia Today. www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/opinion/2012/05/07/bersih-3-0-violence-marks-a-turning-pointGoogle Scholar
Arriola, L. R. (2012). Multi-ethnic Coalitions in Africa: Business Financing of Opposition Election Campaigns. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Au, E. (2016, March 1). Mahathir Quits Umno, Calling It “Najib’s Party.” The Straits Times. www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/mahathir-quits-umno-calling-it-najibs-partyGoogle Scholar
BBC News. (2018, June 27). Malaysia 1MDB: Seized Tiaras, Cash and Hermes Bags “Worth $273m.” BBC News. www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-44625007Google Scholar
Beach, D., & Pedersen, R. B. (2015). Process-tracing Methods: Foundations and Guidelines. University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Beissinger, M. R. (2002). Nationalist Mobilization and the Collapse of the Soviet State. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Beissinger, M. R. (2007). Structure and Example in Modular Political Phenomena: The Diffusion of the Bulldozer/Rose/Orange/Tulip Revolutions. Perspectives on Politics, 5(2), 259276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beissinger, M. R. (2013). The Semblance of Democratic Revolution: Coalitions in Ukraine’s Orange Revolution. The American Political Science Review, 17(3), 574592.Google Scholar
Bermeo, N. (1997). Myths of Moderation: Confrontation and Conflict During Democratic Transition. Comparative Politics, 29(3), 305322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binnendijk, A. L., & Marovic, I. (2006). Power and Persuasion: Nonviolent Strategies to Influence State Security Forces in Serbia (2000) and Ukraine (2004). Communist and Post-communist Studies, 39(3), 411429.Google Scholar
Blaydes, L. (2010). Electoral Budget Cycles and Economic Opportunism. In Elections and Distributive Politics in Mubarak’s Egypt (pp. 7799). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Boix, C., & Svolik, M. (2007). The Foundations of Limited Authoritarian Government: Institutions and Power-Sharing in Dictatorships. (Unpublished manuscript.)Google Scholar
Boudreau, V. (2004). Resisting Dictatorship: Repression and Protest in Southeast Asia. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Brancati, D. (2016). Democracy Protests: Origins, Features, and Significance. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Branch, D. (2006). Loyalists, Mau Mau, and Elections in Kenya: The First Triumph of the System, 1957–1958. Africa Today, 53(2), 2750.Google Scholar
Branch, D., & Cheeseman, N. (2006). The Politics of Control in Kenya: Understanding the Bureaucratic-executive State, 1952–78. Review of African Political Economy, 33(107), 1131.Google Scholar
Bratton, M., & van de Walle, N. (1997). Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brownlee, J. (2007). Authoritarianism in an Age of Democratization. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bunce, V. (1999). Subversive Institutions: The Design and Destruction of Socialism and the State. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bunce, V., & Wolchik, S. L. (2010). Defeating Dictators: Electoral Change and Stability in Competitive Authoritarian Regimes. World Politics, 62(1), 4386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bunce, V., & Wolchik, S. L. (2011). Defeating Authoritarian Leaders in Postcommunist Countries. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bunce, V., & Wolchik, S. L. (2012). 1989 and Its Aftermath. In Bandelj, N. & Solinger, D. (eds.), Socialism Vanquished, Socialism Challenged: Eastern Europe and China, 1989–2009 (pp. 2360). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Case, B. (2020). When Yelling Isn’t Good Enough: Riots and Non-violent Civil Resistance. Doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh.Google Scholar
Cheeseman, N. (2006). Introduction: Political Linkage and Political Space in the Era of Decolonization. Africa Today, 53(2), 224.Google Scholar
Chenoweth, E., & Stephan, M. (2011). Why Civil Resistance Works: The Strategic Logic of Nonviolent Conflict. Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Chin, J. (2001). Malaysian Chinese Politics in the 21st Century: Fear, Service and Marginalisation. Asian Journal of Political Science, 9(2), 7894.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chin, J., & Wong, C. H. (2009). Malaysia’s Electoral Upheaval. Journal of Democracy, 20(3), 7185.Google Scholar
Collier, R. B. (1999). Paths Toward Democracy: The Working Class and Elites in Western Europe and South America. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Collins, K. (2002). Clans, Pacts, and Politics in Central Asia. Journal of Democracy, 13(3), 137152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crouch, H. (1996). Government and Society in Malaysia. Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Dalton, R. J., & Kuechler, M. (1990). Challenging the Political Order: New Social and Political Movements in Western Democracies. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
della Porta, D. (2014). Mobilizing For Democracy: Comparing 1989 and 2011. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diamond, L. (1999). Developing Democracy: Toward Consolidation. Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Diamond, L. (2002). Thinking About Hybrid Regimes. Journal of Democracy, 13(2), 2135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diani, M., & Bison, I. (2004). Organizations, Coalitions, and Movements. Theory and Society, 33, 281309.Google Scholar
Donno, D. (2013). Elections and Democratization in Authoritarian Regimes. American Journal of Political Science, 57(3), 703716.Google Scholar
Dorman, S. R. (2001). Inclusion and Exclusion: NGOs and Politics in Zimbabwe. D.Phil. thesis, University of Oxford.Google Scholar
Dorman, S. R. (2002). “Rocking the Boat?” Church-NGOs and Democratization in Zimbabwe. African Affairs, 101(402), 7592.Google Scholar
Earl, J. (2011). Political Repression: Iron Fists, Velvet Gloves, and Diffuse Control. Annual Review of Sociology, 37, 261284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reporters, FMT. (2016a, November 16). It’s Official, Dr Mahathir Now a Bersih Man. Free Malaysia Today. www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2016/11/16/its-official-dr-mahathir-now-a-bersih-manGoogle Scholar
Reporters, FMT. (2016b, November 18). Police Arrest Maria Chin After Bersih Raid. Free Malaysia Today. www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2016/11/18/police-arrests-maria-chin-after-bersih-raidGoogle Scholar
Franklin, J. (2019). Protest Waves and Authoritarian Regimes: Repression and Protest Outcomes. In Hank, J. (ed.), Social Movements, Nonviolent Resistance, and the State (1st edition, pp. 98124). Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Funston, J. (2000). Malaysia’s Tenth Elections: Status Quo, “Reformasi” or Islamization? Contemporary Southeast Asia: A Journal of International and Strategic Affairs, 22(1), 2359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gandhi, J., & Ong, E. (2019). Committed or Conditional Democrats? Opposition Dynamics in Electoral Autocracies. American Journal of Political Science, 63 (4), 948963.Google Scholar
Gandhi, J., & Reuter, O. J. (2013). The Incentives for Pre-electoral Coalitions in Non-democratic Elections. Democratization, 20(1), 137159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geddes, B. (1999). What Do We Know About Democratization After Twenty Years? Annual Review of Political Science, 2, 115144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
George, A. L., & Bennett, A. (2005). Chapter 7: Case Study and the Philosophy of Science. In Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences (pp. 169–193). MIT Press.Google Scholar
Giersdorf, S., & Croissant, A. (2011). Civil Society and Competitive Authoritarianism in Malaysia. Journal of Civil Society, 7(1), 121.Google Scholar
Golder, S. N. (2005). Pre-electoral Coalitions in Comparative Perspective: A Test of Existing Hypotheses. Electoral Studies, 24, 643663.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Golder, S. N. (2006). Pre-electoral Coalition Formation in Parliamentary Democracies. British Journal of Political Science, 36(2), 193212.Google Scholar
Goldstone, J. A. (2001). Toward a Fourth Generation of Revolutionary Theory. Annual Review of Political Science, 4, 138187.Google Scholar
Goldstone, J. A. (2003). States, Parties, and Social Movements. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gomez, E. T. (1991). Money Politics in the Barisan Nasional. Forum.Google Scholar
Gomez, E. T., & Jomo, K. S. (1997). Malaysia’s Political Economy: Politics, Patronage and Profits. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gomez, J. (2013, September 11). GE14: 500,000 Malaysian Voters in Singapore to Generate Friction. The Malaysia Insider. www.themalaysianinsider.com/sideviews/article/ge14-500000-malaysian-voters-in-singapore-to-generate-friction-james-gomez (Accessed January 15, 2020.)Google Scholar
Haggard, S., & Kaufman, R. R. (2012). Inequality and Regime Change: Democratic Transitions and the Stability of Democratic Rule. American Political Science Review, 106, 495516.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haggard, S., & Kaufman, R. R. (2016a). Dictators and Democrats: Masses, Elites, and Regime Change. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Haggard, S., & Kaufman, R. R. (2016b). Democratization During the Third Wave. Annual Review of Political Science, 19, 125144.Google Scholar
Hale, H. (2006). Democracy or Autocracy on the March? The Color Revolutions as Normal Dynamics of Patronal Presidentialism. Communist and Post-communist Studies, 39(3), 305329.Google Scholar
Harun, H. N. (2016, December 13). PPBM Officially Signs Agreement to Join Pakatan Harapan. New Straits Times. www.nst.com.my/news/2016/12/196556/ppbm-officially-signs-agreement-join-pakatan-harapanGoogle Scholar
Haynes, S. (2018, November 30). “It’s About Right and Wrong.” In Conversation with the Journalist Who Exposed the World’s Biggest Corruption Scandal. Time. https://time.com/5463070/malaysia-1mdb-clare-rewcastle-brown-sarawak-report-interviewGoogle Scholar
Head, J. (2020, March 5). How Malaysia’s Government Collapsed in Two Years. BBC News. www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-51716474Google Scholar
Heaney, M. T., & Rojas, F. (2007). Partisans, Nonpartisans, and the Antiwar Movements in the United States. American Politics Research, 35(4), 431464.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heaney, M. T., & Rojas, F. (2015). Party in the Street: The Antiwar Movement and the Democratic Party After 9/11. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hew, W. W. (2016, November 24). Bersih 5 and the increase of the Malay discontents. New Mandala. www.newmandala.org/bersih-5-increase-malay-discontentsGoogle Scholar
Hicken, A. (2011). Clientelism. Annual Review of Political Science, 14, 289310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higley, J., & Gunther, R. (eds.). (1992). Elites and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hope, B., & Wright, T. (2018). Billion Dollar Whale: The Man Who Fooled Wall Street, Hollywood, and the World. Hachette Books.Google Scholar
Howard, M., & Roessler, P. (2006). Liberalizing Electoral Outcomes in Competitive Authoritarian Regimes. American Journal of Political Science, 50(2), 365381.Google Scholar
Hutchcroft, P. D. (1991). Oligarchs and Cronies in the Philippine State: The Politics of Patrimonial Plunder. World Politics, 43(3), 414450.Google Scholar
Jasper, J. (1997). The Art of Moral Protest: Culture, Biography, and Creativity in Social Movements. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Jomo, K. S. (2011). The New Economic Policy and Interethnic Relations in Malaysia. In Global Minority Rights, 239–266. Routledge.Google Scholar
Jones, D. M. (2000). What Mahatir Has Wrought. The National Interest, 59, 101112.Google Scholar
Karatnycky, A., & Ackerman, P. (2005). How Freedom Is Won: From Civic Resistance to Durable Democracy. Freedom House. (Research Study.) https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/How%20Freedom%20is%20Won.pdfGoogle Scholar
Karl, T. L. (1990). Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America. Comparative Politics, 23(1), 121.Google Scholar
Kaufman, R. K. (1986). Liberalization and Democratization in South America: Perspectives from the 1970s. In O’Donnell, G., Schmitter, P. C., & Whitehead, L. (eds.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives (pp. 85–107). Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Khoo, B. T. (2018). Borne By Dissent, Tormented by Divides: The Opposition 60 Years After Merdeka. Southeast Asian Studies, 7(3), 471491.Google Scholar
Khoo, Y. H. (2014a). Electoral Reform Movement in Malaysia: Emergence, Protest and Reform. Suvannabhumi: Multi-disciplinary Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 6(2), 81101.Google Scholar
Khoo, Y. H. (2014b). Mobilization Potential and Democratization Processes of the Coalition for Clean and Fair Elections (Bersih) in Malaysia: An Interview with Hishamuddin Rais. Austrian Journal of South-east Asian Studies, 7(1), 111119.Google Scholar
Khoo, Y. H. (2016a, November 18). Malaysia’s Bersih 5 Rally: Protesters Weigh the Cost of Action Under a Repressive Regime. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/malaysias-bersih-5-rally-protesters-weigh-the-cost-of-action-under-a-repressive-regime-68723Google Scholar
Khoo, Y. H. (2016b). Malaysia’s 13th General Elections and the Rise of Electoral Reform Movement. Asian Politics and Policy, 8(3), 418435.Google Scholar
Kitschelt, H. (1989). The Logics of Party Formation: Economical Politics in Belgium and West Germany. Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Kitschelt, H., & Hellemans, S. (1990). Beyond the European Left: Ideology and Political Action in the Belgian Ecology. Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Kriesi, H., Koopmans, R., & Duyvendak, J. W. (1995). New Social Movements in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis. University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Kubik, J. (1998). Institutionalization of Protest During Democratic Consolidations in Central Europe. In D. S. Meyer and S. Tarrow (eds.) The Social Movement Society: Contentious Politics for a New Century (pp. 131–152). Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Kumar, K. (2015, August 29). Dr M Shows Up at Bersih 4 Rally, with Dr Siti Hasmah. The Malay Mail. www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2015/08/29/dr-m-shows-up-at-bersih-4-rally/960609Google Scholar
Kuntz, P., & Thompson, M. R. (2009). More Than Just the Final Straw: Stolen Elections as Revolutionary Triggers. Comparative Politics, 41(3), 253272.Google Scholar
Kuperus, T. (1999). Building Democracy: An Examination of Religious Associations in South Africa and Zimbabwe. Journal of Modern African Studies, 37(4), 643668.Google Scholar
Kuran, T. (1991). Now Out of Never: The Element of Surprise in the East European Revolution of 1989. World Politics, 44(1), 748.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LeBas, A. (2011). From Protest to Parties: Party-building and Democratization in Africa. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, J. C. H. (2007). Barisan Nasional Political Dominance and the General Elections of 2004 in Malaysia. Sudostasian Aktuell – Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, 2, 3966.Google Scholar
Lee, J. C. H. (2014). Jom Bersih! Global Bersih and the Enactment of Malaysian Citizenship in Melbourne. Citizenship Studies, 18(8), 900913.Google Scholar
Levitsky, S. & Way, L. (2002). The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism. Journal of Democracy, 13(2), 5165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levitsky, S., & Way, L. A. (2006). Linkage versus Leverage: Rethinking the International Dimension of Regime Change. Comparative Politics, 38(4), 379400.Google Scholar
Liew, C. T. (2013). >An Opposition’s Transformation: Interview with Liew Chin Tong. In Welsh, B. & Chin, J. (eds.), Awakening: The Abdullah Badawi Years in Malaysia (pp. 294–311). SIRD.Google Scholar
Lin, K. J. (2013, April 30). Ink Used on Voter’s Index Finger Is NOT Indelible. Malaysiakini. www.malaysiakini.com/news/228547Google Scholar
Linz, J. J., & Stepan, A. (1996). Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-communist Europe. Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Liow, J. C. (2004). A Brief Analysis of Malaysia’s Eleventh General Election. UNISCI.Google Scholar
Liow, J. C. (2009). Piety and Politics: Islamism in Contemporary Malaysia. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lust-Okar, E. (2005). Structuring Conflict in the Arab World: Incumbents, Opponents, and Institutions. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lust-Okar, E. (2006). Elections Under Authoritarianism: Preliminary Lessons from Jordan. Democratization, 13(3), 455470.Google Scholar
Lyn, B. S., & Ding, E. (2013, May 9). Thousands Pack Kelana Jaya Stadium for Pakatan Rally. The Malaysian Insider. https://themalaysianinsider.wordpress.com/2013/05/08/thousands-pack-kelana-jaya-stadium-for-pakataGoogle Scholar
Magaloni, B. (2006). Voting for Autocracy: Hegemonic Party Survival and Its Demise in Mexico. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mahavera, S. (2015, October 23). Is 1Malaysia Store Really Value for Money for the Working Class? The Edge Markets. www.theedgemarkets.com/article/1malaysia-store-really-value-money-working-classGoogle Scholar
Malaysiakini. (2015, July 29). Mammoth Bersih 4.0 Rallies to Get Najib Out. Malaysiakini. www.malaysiakini.com/news/306575Google Scholar
Malesky, E. (2009). Gerrymandering Vietnam Style: Escaping the Partial Reform Equilibrium in a Non-democratic Regime. Journal of Politics, 71(1), 132159.Google Scholar
Marples, D. R. (2006). The Presidential Election Campaign: An Analysis. In Forbrig, J., Demeš, P., & Marples, D. R. (eds.), Prospects for Democracy in Belarus (pp. 95–102). German Marshall Fund of the United States and the Heinrich Böll Stiftung.Google Scholar
Maxwell, D. (1995). The Church and Democratisation in Africa: The Case of Zimbabwe. In Gifford, P. (ed.), The Christian Churches and the Democratisation of Africa. E. J. Brill.Google Scholar
McAdam, D. (1982). Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
McAdam, D., & Kloos, K. (2014). Deeply Divided: Racial Politics and Social Movements in Post-war America. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
McAdam, D., McCarthy, J. D., & Zald, M. N. (1996). Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McAdam, D., & Tarrow, S. (2010). Ballots and Barricades: On the Reciprocal Relationship Between Elections and Social Movements. Perspectives on Politics, 8(2), 529542.Google Scholar
McAdam, D. & Tarrow, S. (2011). Social Movements and Elections: Toward a Broader Understanding of the Political Context of Contention. Sociologias, 13(28), 1851.Google Scholar
McAdam, D., Tarrow, S., & Tilly, C. (2001). Dynamics of Contention. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
McFaul, M. (2005). Transitions from Postcommunism. Journal of Democracy, 16(3), 519.Google Scholar
Meladze, G. (2005, September 6). Civil Society: A Second Chance for Post-Soviet Democracy: A Eurasianet Commentary. Eurasianet. www.eurasianet.org/departments/civilsociety/articles/ eav090605.shtmlGoogle Scholar
Mendoza, A. (2009). People Power in the Philippines, 1983–86. In Roberts, A. & Garton, T. (eds.), Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present (pp. 179–182). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Meyer, D. S. (2004). Protests and Political Opportunities. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, 125145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, D. S., & Staggenborg, S. (1996). Movements, Countermovements, and the Structure of Political Opportunity. American Journal of Sociology, 101(6), 16281660.Google Scholar
Meyer, D. S., & Tarrow, S. (1998). A Movement Society: Contentious Politics for a New Century. In Meyer, D. S. & Tarrow, S. (eds.), The Social Movement Society: Contentious Politics for a New Century. Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Meyer, D. S., & Tarrow, S. (2018). The Resistance: The Dawn of the Anti-Trump Opposition Movement. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Morgenbesser, L., & Pepinsky, T. (2019). Elections as Causes of Democratization: Southeast Asia in Comparative Perspective. Comparative Political Studies, 52(1), 335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moyo, S. (1991). NGO Advocacy in Zimbabwe: Systematising an Old Function or Inventing a New Role? (Working Paper No. 1. Harare.) Zimbabwe Environmental Regional Organisation.Google Scholar
Mueller, S. (2008). The Political Economy of Kenya’s Crisis. Journal of Eastern African Studies, 2(2), 185210.Google Scholar
Mutasah, T. (2001). The Founding of the National Constitutional Assembly in Zimbabwe: Why, How, and Where? Unpublished manuscript, cited in LeBas (2011).Google Scholar
Nepstad, S. E. (2011). Nonviolent Revolutions: Civil Resistance in the Late 20th Century. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Noor, F. A. (1999). Looking for Reformasi: The Discursive Dynamics of the Reformasi Movement and Its Prospects as a Political Project. Indonesia and the Malay World, 27(77), 518.Google Scholar
Noor, F. A. (2014). The Malaysian Islamic Party 1951–2013: Islamism in a Mottled Nation. Amsterdam University Press.Google Scholar
NST Online. (2016, November 18). Bersih Rally to Go on, with or without Maria Chin. The New Straits Times. www.nst.com.my/news/2016/11/189909/bersih-rally-go-or-without-maria-chinGoogle Scholar
O’Donnell, G., Schmitter, P., & Whitehead, L. (1986). Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions About Uncertain Democracies. Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Ooi, K. B. (2012, November 26). The Resurgence of Social Activism in Malaysia. ISEAS Perspective. ISEAS.Google Scholar
Orvis, S. (2006). Bringing Institutions Back into the Study of Kenya and Africa. Africa Today, 53(2), 95110.Google Scholar
Ostwald, K. (2013). How to Win a Lost Election: Malapportionment and Malaysia’s 2013 General Election. The Round Table, 102(6), 521532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paddock, R. C. (2020, July 28). Democracy Fades in Malaysia as Old Order Returns to Power. The New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2020/05/22/world/asia/malaysia-politics-najib.htmlGoogle Scholar
Pepinsky, T. B. (2007). Autocracy, Elections and Fiscal Policy: Evidence from Malaysia. Studies in Comparative International Development, 42(1), 136163.Google Scholar
Pepinsky, T. B. (2013). The New Media and Malaysian Politics in Historical Perspective. Contemporary Southeast Asia, 35(1), 83103.Google Scholar
Pepinsky, T. B. (2014). The Institutional Turn in Comparative Authoritarianism. British Journal of Political Science, 44(3), 631653.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rahman, S. (2018). The Islamist Factor in Malaysia’s Fourteenth General Election. The Round Table, 107, 669682.Google Scholar
Ramesh, R. (2016, July 28). 1MDB: The Inside Story of the World’s Biggest Financial Scandal. The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/28/1mdb-inside-story-worlds-biggest-financial-scandal-malaysiaGoogle Scholar
Roberts, A., Mahadevan, T. K., & Sharp, G. (1967). Civilian Defense: An Introduction. Gandhi Peace Foundation.Google Scholar
Romulo, B. D. (1987). Inside the Palace: The Rise and Fall of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos. G. P. Putnam’s Sons.Google Scholar
Roundup, K. (2020, February 27). Mahathir Breaks Silence on “Sheraton Move,” and 9 News from Yesterday. Malaysiakini. www.malaysiakini.com/news/512359Google Scholar
Rueschemeyer, D., Huber, E., & Stephens, J. D. (1992). Capitalist Development and Democracy. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Schedler, A. (1998). What Is Democratic Consolidation? Journal of Democracy, 9(2), 91107.Google Scholar
Schedler, A. (2013). The Politics of Uncertainty: Sustaining and Subverting Electoral Authoritarianism. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schlozman, D. (2015). When Movements Anchor Parties: Electoral Alignments in American History. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Schock, K. (2005). Unarmed Insurrections: People Power Movements in Nondemocracies. University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Schock, K. (2015). Civil Resistance: Comparative Perspectives on Nonviolent Struggle. University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Reporters, SD. (2015, August 29). Bersih 4: Tun M Makes Surprise Appearance. The Sun Daily. www.thesundaily.my/archive/1535663-CSARCH326437Google Scholar
Searle, P. (1999). The Riddle of Malaysian Capitalism: Rent-seekers or Real Capitalists? University of Hawai‘i Press.Google Scholar
Sharp, G. (1973). The Politics of Nonviolent Action (Vols. 1–3). Porter Sargent.Google Scholar
Silitski, V. (2006). Belarus: Learning from Defeat. Journal of Democracy, 17(4), 138152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simpser, A. (2005). Making Votes Not Count: Strategic Incentives for Electoral Corruption. PhD thesis, Stanford University.Google Scholar
Skocpol, T., & Williamson, V. (2016). The Tea Party and the Remaking of Republican Conservatism. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Slater, D. (2003). Iron Cage in an Iron Fist: Authoritarian Institutions and the Personalization of Power in Malaysia. Comparative Politics, 36(1), 81101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slater, D. (2010). Ordering Power: Contentious Politics and Authoritarian Leviathans in Southeast Asia. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Slater, D. (2012). Strong-state Democratization in Malaysia and Singapore. Journal of Democracy, 23(2), 1933.Google Scholar
Subramaniam, P. (2014, March 7). Anwar Given 5 Years’ Jail After Appellate Court Reverses Sodomy Acquittal. The Malay Mail. www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2014/03/07/anwar-acquittal-reversed/630827Google Scholar
Svolik, M. W. (2019). Polarization versus Democracy. Journal of Democracy, 30(3), 2032.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tarrow, S. G. (1989). Democracy and Disorder: Protest and Politics in Italy, 1965–1975. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Tarrow, S. G. (1998). Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tarrow, S. G. (2021). Movements and Parties: Critical Connections in American Political Development. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
The Irish Times. (1998, September 29). Violence Erupts as Protest Movement Takes to Streets Against Malaysia MP. The Irish Times.Google Scholar
The Star. (2015, August 27). Police Probe Anti-Bersih “Red Shirts” After Self-defence Skills. The Star. www.thestar.com.my/News/Nation/2015/08/27/bersih-4-police-to-probe-red-shirtsGoogle Scholar
The Straits Times. (2016, November 16). Mahathir Appears in Bersih 5 T-shirt in New Video, Calls on Malaysians to Join Rally. The Straits Times. www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/mahathir-appears-in-bersih-5-t-shirt-in-new-video-calls-on-malaysians-to-join-rallyGoogle Scholar
The World Bank. (2017). GDP per Capita (current US$). https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CDGoogle Scholar
Thompson, M. R. (1995). The Anti-Marcos Struggle: Personalistic Rule and Democratic Transition in the Philippines. Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Thompson, M. R. (1996). Off the Endangered List: Philippine Democratization in Comparative Perspective. Comparative Politics, 28(2), 197205.Google Scholar
Tilly, C. (1978). From Mobilization to Revolution. Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Trejo, G. (2014). The Ballot and the Street: An Electoral Theory of Social Protest in Autocracies. Perspectives on Politics, 12(2), 332352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tucker, J. A. (2007). Enough! Electoral Fraud, Collective Action Problems, and Post-communist Colored Revolutions. Perspectives on Politics, 5(3), 535551.Google Scholar
Tufekci, Z., & Wilson, C. (2012). Social Media and the Decision to Participate in Political Protest: Observations from Tahrir Square. Journal of Communication, 62(2), 363379.Google Scholar
Ufen, A. (2020). Opposition in Transition: Pre-electoral Coalitions and the 2018 Electoral Breakthrough in Malaysia. Democratization, 27(2), 167184.Google Scholar
Ulfelder, J. (2005). Contentious Collective Action and the Breakdown of Authoritarian Regimes. International Political Science Review, 26(3), 311334.Google Scholar
Wahman, M. (2013). Opposition Coalitions and Democratization by Election. Government and Opposition, 48(1), 332.Google Scholar
Wan Jan, W. S. (2018). Parti Pribumi Bersatu Malaysia in Jahor: New Party, Big Responsibility. ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute.Google Scholar
Weiss, M. (1999). What Will Become of Reformasi? Ethnicity and Changing Political Norms in Malaysia. Contemporary Southeast Asia, 21(3), 424450.Google Scholar
Weiss, M. L. (2006). Protest and Possibilities: Civil Society and Coalitions for Political Change in Malaysia. Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Weiss, M. L. (2013). Malaysia’s 13th General Elections: Same Result, Different Outcome. Asian Survey, 53(6), 11351158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiss, M. L. (2016). Payoffs, Parties, or Policies: “Money Politics” and Electoral Authoritarian Resilience. Critical Asian Studies, 48(1), 7799.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wong, C. H. (2005). The Federal and State Elections in Malaysia, March 2004. Electoral Studies, 24(2), 311319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wong, C. H. (2018, July). Interview with Chin-Huat Wong, a Bersih Leader. (Personal communication.)Google Scholar
Wright, T., & Clark, S. (2015, July 2). Investigators Believe Money Flowed to Malaysian Leader Najib’s Accounts Amid 1MDB Probe. The Wall Street Journal. www.wsj.com/articles/malaysian-investigators-probe-points-to-deposits-into-prime-ministers-accounts-1435866107?tesla=yGoogle Scholar
Zahiid, S. J., & Lin, M. M. (2015, August 29). To Prove Critics Wrong, Muslims Pray at Bersih 4 Rally. The Malay Mail. www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2015/08/29/to-prove-critics-wrong-muslims-pray-at-bersih-4-rally/960435Google Scholar
Ziegfeld, A., & Tudor, M. (2017). How Opposition Parties Sustain Single-party Dominance: Lessons from India. Party Politics, 23(3), 262273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zunes, S. (1999). The Origins of People Power in the Philippines. In Zunes, S., Kurtz, L. R., & Asher, S. B. (eds.), Nonviolent Social Movements: A Geographical Perspective (pp. 129157). Blackwell.Google Scholar

Save element to Kindle

To save this element to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

The Street and the Ballot Box
Available formats
×

Save element to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

The Street and the Ballot Box
Available formats
×

Save element to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

The Street and the Ballot Box
Available formats
×