In December 1654, Oliver Cromwell's Protectorate government launched a campaign against the Spanish empire known as the ‘Western Design’. Under the joint command of Generals Robert Venables and William Penn, the goal was to capture Hispaniola and use the island as a base for further expansion into Spanish territory. From the establishment of the Commonwealth in 1649 the English army and navy could point to a string of ‘providential’ victories: the overthrow of Charles I and the institution of monarchy; the conquests of Ireland and Scotland; naval success in the first Anglo-Dutch war. In these campaigns, the press proved to be as valuable a weapon as the use of conventional arms. Official declarations, news reports and pamphlet accounts heralded the march of war and accompanied the troops, framing each conflict as a Protestant war. With the Design, Cromwell had initiated an offensive against Spain, against the heart of the Catholic world and the pillar of the Roman Church. The strike against the Spanish empire, however, drew little fanfare. No martial statements trumpeted the launch, no public pronouncements outlining the reasons for, and objectives of, the attack accompanied the departure, no printed accounts emerged to contextualize the Design and generate enthusiasm for its mission. The official silence would, it was hoped, reduce the possibility that Spanish territories would be prepared for attack. Rumours spread on both sides of the Atlantic, conflicting and contradictory news reports emerged and circulated verbally, in manuscript and in print, but for seven months the Protectorate government refused to publicly disclose the fleet's destination and objectives.

As the months passed, the anticipated confirmation of victory at Hispaniola never arrived. At last, in late July 1655, what came instead was news of a humiliating defeat at Hispaniola, followed by the conquest of Jamaica. For Cromwell, the Hispaniola defeat raised a chilling question: how could a Protector who styled himself as a champion of the Protestant faith, whose army claimed victory over a long list of popish foes, who trusted that providence would lead his troops in battle against England's historic enemy, be dealt such a severe chastisement? Cromwell's deep disappointment with the outcome at Hispaniola overshadowed the capture of Jamaica, and ongoing hardships at the new colony did little to alleviate his anxiety.