The previous four chapters have examined how changes in each of the four systems of resource allocation (markets, state, voluntary and community organisations, family and friends) affect individual financial hardship, wellbeing and vulnerability in rural Britain. The empirical data presented thus far raises important questions that require further consideration, particularly in relation to the interactions between the four different systems of support. Do they complement each other, or do they compound social exclusion? For example, does support from the state compensate for loss of income from employment? Are there individuals or social groups who might be neglected by several or all sources of support? Do these interactions differ between places? And does the strength of support vary from place to place? We now seek to dig more deeply into the processes of social exclusion which underlie financial hardship and vulnerability in rural places, drawing on our rich data to compare and contrast the three case studies and situate our work within the literature reviewed at the outset.

Precariatisation and the evolution of rural economies

Rural economies have undergone considerable structural change in recent decades, even though this may have been less dramatic and visible than the loss of heavy industry in post-industrial urban areas. The gradual loss of employment in agriculture and forestry exceeds the more intense loss of jobs in the British coal industry, for example. Meanwhile, there has been a growth in service sector activities which now dominate employment in both rural and urban areas. These structural changes were evident across the Western Isles (affecting Harris), Perthshire (affecting East Perthshire) and Northumberland (affecting the North Tyne valley), and in each region there has been an increasing reliance on employment and self-employment in tourism and hospitality, alongside growth in public sector employment (until austerity policies reversed this latter trend from 2010). In conjunction with a decline in crofting, Harris has experienced a considerable increase in ‘destination tourism’, which has enabled several major new employers to create new job opportunities in the area. However, the growth in tourism in Harris presents a double-edged sword: some employers face staff shortages, partly because of a decrease in the working-age population and partly due to a lack of local affordable housing for employees.