We have used the terms “politics” and “political” up to this point as if they were not theoretically problematic, which of course is not true. Each theoretical perspective on the state in Western capitalist democracies has its own conception of politics. “Politics” in the pluralist view means a disagreement over alternative possible decisions in particular situations, in which individuals use their resources to attempt to influence the outcome. Possible outcomes are open-ended, at least from the point of view of the participants, so that political actors calculate the consequences of voting, forming a party, or joining a protest movement. Power is manifest in who wins in specific situations with contingent outcomes. Participation leads to power, via liberal and conservative politics, seeking to influence the actions of a democratic state.

“Politics” in the managerial view means organized conflict between political “parties” – relatively stable coalitions that compete for the chance to rule either the state or an organization. Power leads to participation, via reform and reactionary politics, seeking to control the bureaucratic state.

“Politics” in the class world view is not theorized directly. Insofar as the concept is theorized, politics is the embodiment of class forces, the actions of agents of classes. Politics is significant mainly when the social relations of production are at stake, being either reinforced or potentially transformed. Class politics is class struggle, transforming both power and participation in capitalist states via socialist and fascist politics.