Introduction

Human trafficking and undocumented migration are closely intertwined. Although the two phenomena have different political implications (Väyrynen, 2003), there are clear intersections between these phenomena. In this chapter, we approach trafficking, and modern slavery, from the viewpoint of the broader British public debate on undocumented migration. In the most general terms, undocumented migration refers to either unlawful residence, unauthorised employment or border crossing, without valid travel documents (Vollmer, 2014). In light of increased border controls that manage migration flows worldwide, more migrants are forced to turn to the services of smugglers who facilitate their unlawful move across borders (Jesperson et al, 2019 and Chapter 1). Human trafficking and people smuggling constitute different legal categories. In reality, however, both practices often intersect, as undocumented migrants frequently engage in exploitative work during their journey in order to be able to pay for their further migratory movement.

Modern slavery and human trafficking (MSHT) can occur at different points along a migrant journey which makes individuals susceptible to exploitative work conditions and hence puts them into the category of MSHT. One of the drivers of human trafficking is the demand for cheap and illegal labour (Arlacchi, 2011). Employment without authorisation reflects a connection between low-paid work in the informal economy, exploitation and a sense of the powerlessness of undocumented migrants living in illegality (Lewis and Waite, 2019). Given that little regulation of the labour force exists in the informal economy, migrants who work in this economy may be more at risk of being exploited by unscrupulous employers. The absence of a work permit could exacerbate their disadvantaged position, for example, in cases where employers impose poor work conditions or threaten migrants with denouncing them to officials. The fear of being detected by authorities can also prevent migrants from negotiating higher incomes or better work conditions. Put differently, the ‘invisibility’ of undocumented migrants in the receiving society can enhance their vulnerability of becoming victims of potential traffickers who facilitated their entry into the destination country in the first place (Forgione, 2011). Undocumented migrants usually have little chance of being granted asylum, for example due to strict legislation, and may turn to organised crime gangs to find work (Väyrynen, 2003; also Chapter 8, this volume).