References

Terence P. Thornberry; Marvin D. Krohn; Alan J. Lizotte; Carolyn A. Smith; Kimberly Tobin

doi:10.1017/CBO9780511499517.016

Achenbach, Thomas M. and Edelbrock, Craig S.. (1979). The child behavior profile: II. Boys' aged 12–16 and girls aged 6–11 and 12–16. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 47:223–233CrossRef Google Scholar

Baltes, Paul B. (1987). Theoretical propositions of life-span developmental psychology: On the dynamics between growth and decline. Developmental Psychology 23:611–626CrossRef Google Scholar

Baltes, Paul B. and Orville G. Brim, Jr. (Eds.) (1982). Life Span Development and Behavior (Vol. 4). New York: Academic Press

Battin, Sara R., Hill, Karl G., Abbott, Robert D., Catalano, Richard F., and Hawkins, J. David. (1998). The contribution of gang membership to delinquency beyond delinquent friends. Criminology 36:93–115CrossRef Google Scholar

Battin, Sara R., Karl G. Hill, J. David Hawkins, Richard F. Catalano, and Robert D. Abbott. (1996). Testing gang membership and association with antisocial peers as independent predictors of antisocial behavior: Gang members compared to non-gang members of law-violating youth groups. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Chicago November

Battin-Pearson, Sara R., Terence P. Thornberry, J. David Hawkins, and Marvin D. Krohn. (1998). Gang Membership, Delinquent Peers, and Delinquent Behavior. Juvenile Justice Bulletin. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

Bjerregaard, Beth and Lizotte, Alan J.. (1995). Gun ownership and gang membership. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 86:37–58CrossRef Google Scholar

Bjerregaard, Beth and Smith, Carolyn A.. (1993). Gender differences in gang participation, delinquency, and substance use. Journal of Quantitative Criminology 9:329–355CrossRef Google Scholar

Blumstein, Alfred, Jacqueline Cohen, Jeffrey A. Roth, and Christy A. Visher (Eds.) (1986). Criminal Careers and “Career Criminals” (Vol. 1). Washington, DC: National Academy Press

Bolger, Kerry E., Patterson, Charlotte J., Thompson, William W., and Kupersmidt, Janis B.. (1995). Psychosocial adjustment among children experiencing persistent and intermittent family economic hardship. Child Development 66:1107–1129CrossRef Google Scholar

Bowker, Lee H., and Klein, Malcolm W.. (1983). The etiology of female juvenile delinquency and gang membership: A test of psychological and social structural explanations. Adolescence 18:739–751Google Scholar PubMed

Bronfenbrenner, Uri. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

Bursik, Robert J. and Harold G. Grasmick. (1993). Neighborhoods and Crime: The Dimensions of Effective Community Control. New York: Lexington Books

Bushway, Shawn D., Brame, Robert, and Paternoster, Raymond. (1999). Assessing stability and change in criminal offending: A comparison of random effects, semi-parametric, and fixed effects modeling strategies. Journal of Quantitative Criminology 15:23–61CrossRef Google Scholar

Campbell, Anne. (1990). Female participation in gangs. Pp. 163–182 in C. Ronald Huff (Ed.), Gangs in America. Newbury Park, CA: Sage

Cartwright, Desmond S., Barbara Tomson, and Hershey Schwartz. (1975). Gang Delinquency. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole

Caspi, Avshalom, Bradley, R. E. Wright, Moffitt, Terrie E., and Silva, Phil A.. (1998). Early failure in the labor market: Childhood and adolescent predictors of unemployment in the transition to adulthood. American Sociological Review 63:424–451CrossRef Google Scholar

Cicchetti, Dante and Rogosch, Fred A.. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology 8:597–600CrossRef Google Scholar

Cloward, Richard A. and Lloyd E. Ohlin. (1960). Delinquency and Opportunity: A Theory of Delinquent Gangs. New York: Free Press

Cohen, Albert K. (1955). Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang. Glencoe, IL: Free Press

Cohen, Bernard. (1969). The delinquency of gangs and spontaneous groups. Pp. 61–111 in Thorsten Sellin and Marvin E. Wolfgang (Eds.), Delinquency: Selected Studies. New York: Wiley

Cohen, Marcia I., Katherine Williams, Alan M. Bekelman, and Scott Crosse. (1994). Evaluation of the National Youth Gang Drug Prevention Program. Pp. 266–275 in Malcolm W. Klein, Cheryl L. Maxson, and Jody Miller (Eds.), The Modern Gang Reader. Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury

Coleman, James S. (1988). Social capital and the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology 94:S95–S120CrossRef Google Scholar

Coleman, James S. (1990). Foundations of Social Theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

Cook, Philip J., Molliconi, Stephanie, and Cole, Thomas B.. (1995). Regulating Gun Markets. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 86:59–92CrossRef Google Scholar

Curry, G. David. (2000). Self-reported gang involvement and officially recorded delinquency. Criminology 38:1253–1274CrossRef Google Scholar

Curry, G. David, Richard A. Ball, and Scott H. Decker. (1996a). Estimating the National Scope of Gang Crime From Law Enforcement Data. Research in Brief. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice

Curry, G. David, Richard A. Ball, and Scott H. Decker (1996b). Estimating the national scope of gang crime from law enforcement data. Pp. 21–36 in C. Ronald Huff (Ed.), Gangs in America (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

CurryDavid, G. and Decker, Scott H.. (1997). What's in a name?: A gang by any other name isn't quite the same. Valparaiso University Law Review 31:501–514Google Scholar

Curry, G. David and Scott H. Decker (1998). Confronting Gangs: Crime and Community. Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury Publishing Company

Curry, G. David and Spergel, Irving A.. (1992). Gang involvement and delinquency among Hispanic and African-American adolescent males. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 29:273–291CrossRef Google Scholar

Dahmann, J. (1995). Operation Hardcore, A Prosecutorial Response to Violent Gang Criminality: Interim Evaluation Report. Pp. 301–303 in Malcolm W. Klein, Cheryl L. Maxson, and Jody Miller (Eds.), The Modern Gang Reader. Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury Publishing Company. (Original work published 1981)

Decker, Scott H. (1996). Collective and normative features of gang violence. Justice Quarterly 13:243–264CrossRef Google Scholar

Decker, Scott H. (2000). Legitimating drug use: A note on the impact of gang membership and drug sales on the use of illicit drugs. Justice Quarterly 17:393–410CrossRef

Decker, Scott H., Bynum, Tim, and Weisel, Deborah. (1998). A tale of two cities: Gangs as organized crime groups. Justice Quarterly 15:393–425CrossRef Google Scholar

Decker, Scott H. and Curry, G. David. (2000). Addressing key features of gang membership: Measuring the involvement of young members. Journal of Criminal Justice 28:473–482CrossRef Google Scholar

Decker, Scott H. and Janet L. Lauritsen. (1996). Breaking the bonds of membership: Leaving the gang. Pp. 103–122 in C. Ronald Huff (Ed.), Gangs in America (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Decker, Scott H. and Barrik Van Winkle. (1996). Life in the Gang: Family, Friends, and Violence. New York: Cambridge University Press

Deschenes, Elizabeth P. and Esbensen, Finn-Aage. (1999). Violence and gangs: Gender differences in perceptions and behavior. Journal of Quantitative Criminology 15:63–96CrossRef Google Scholar

Dishion, Thomas J., McCord, Joan, and Poulin, Francois. (1999). When interventions harm. American Psychologist 54:755–764CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Egley, Arlen, Jr. (2000). Highlights of the 1999 National Youth Gang Survey. Fact Sheet #20, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

Elder, Glen H., Jr. (1985). Perspectives on the life course. Pp. 23–49 in Glen H. Elder Jr. (Ed.), Life Course Dynamics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press

Elder, Glen H., Jr. (1994). Time, human agency, and social change: Perspectives on the life course. Social Psychology Quarterly 57:4–15CrossRef

Elder, Glen H., Jr. (1997). The life course and human development. Pp. 939–991 in Richard M. Lerner (Ed.), Handbook of Child Psychology, Vol. 1: Theoretical Models of Human Development. New York: Wiley

Elder, Glen H. Jr. and Caspi, A.. (1988). Economic stress in lives: Developmental perspectives. Social Problems 44:25–45Google Scholar

Elliott, Delbert S. (1998). Blueprints for Violence Prevention. Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence. University of Colorado at Boulder

Emery, Robert E. and O'Leary, K. Daniel. (1982). Children's perceptions of marital discord and behavior problems of boys and girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 10:11–24CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Esbensen, Finn-Aage and Huizinga, David. (1993). Gangs, drugs, and delinquency in a survey of urban youth. Criminology 4:565–589CrossRef Google Scholar

Esbensen, Finn-Aage, Huizinga, David, and Weiher, Anne W.. (1993). Gang and non-gang youth: Differences in explanatory factors. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 9:94–116CrossRef Google Scholar

Esbensen, Finn-Age and D. Wayne Osgood. (1997). National Evaluation of G.R.E.A.T. Research in Brief. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice

Esbensen, Finn-Age and Osgood, D. Wayne. (1999). Gang Resistance Education and Training (GREAT): Results from the national evaluation. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 36:194–225CrossRef Google Scholar

Esbensen, Finn-age., Osgood, D. Wayne, Taylor, Terrance J., Peterson, Dana, and Freng, Adrienne. (2001). How Great is G.R.E.A.T.?: Results from a Longitudinal Quasi-Experimental Design. Criminology and Public Policy 1:87–118CrossRef Google Scholar

Esbensen, Finn-Aage and Winfree, L. Thomas. (1998). Race and gender differences between gang and nongang youths: Results from a multisite survey. Justice Quarterly 15:505–526CrossRef Google Scholar

Fagan, Jeffrey. (1989). The social organization of drug use and drug dealing among urban gangs. Criminology 27:633–669CrossRef Google Scholar

Fagan, Jeffrey (1990). Social processes of delinquency and drug use among urban gangs. Pp. 183–219 in C. Ronald Huff (Ed.), Gangs in America. Newbury Park, CA: Sage

Fagan, Jeffrey (1996). Gangs, drugs, and neighborhood change. Pp. 39–74 in C. Ronald Huff (Ed.), Gangs in America (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Fagan, Jeffrey and Pabon, Edward. (1990). Contributions of delinquency and substance use to school dropout among inner-city youths. Youth and Society 21:306–354CrossRef Google Scholar

Fagan, Jeffrey, Piper, Elizabeth, and Moore, Melinda. (1986). Violent delinquents and urban youths. Criminology 24:439–471CrossRef Google Scholar

Farnworth, Margaret, Thornberry, Terence P., Krohn, Marvin D., and Lizotte, Alan J.. (1994). Measurement in the study of class and delinquency: Integrating theory and research. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 31:32–61CrossRef Google Scholar

Farrington, David P. (1977). The effects of public labeling. British Journal of Criminology 17:112–125CrossRef Google Scholar

Farrington, David P. (1987). Early precursors of frequent offending. Pp. 27–50 in James Q. Wilson and Glenn C. Loury (Eds.), From Children to Citizens. New York: Springer-VerlagCrossRef

Farrington, David P. (2000). Explaining and preventing crime: The globalization of knowledge – The American Society of Criminology 1999 presidential address. Criminology 38:1–24CrossRef

Fishman, Laura T. (1995). The vice queens: An ethnographic study of black female gang behavior. Pp. 83–92 in Malcolm W. Klein, Cheryl L. Maxson, and Jody Miller (Eds.), The Modern Gang Reader. Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury

Flanagan, Timothy J. and Kathleen Maguire. (Eds.) (1992). Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics 1991. U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. Washington, DC: USGPO

FriedmanJack, C., Mann, Fredrica, and Friedman, Alfred S.. (1975). A profile of juvenile street gang members. Adolescence 10:563–607Google Scholar PubMed

Garmezy, Norman. (1995). Stress resistant children: The search for protective factors. Pp. 213–233 in J. E. Stevenson (Ed.), Aspects of Current Child Psychiatry Research. Oxford, England: Pergamon

Gatti, Uberto, Frank Vitaro, Richard E. Tremblay, and Pierre McDuff. (2002). Youth gangs and violent behavior: Results from the Monteral Longitudinal Experimental Study. Paper presented at the XV World Meeting of the International Society for Reserch on Aggression, Montreal, July

Gerrard, Nathan L. (1964). The core member of the gang. British Journal of Criminology 4:361–371CrossRef Google Scholar

Gottfredson, Michael R. and Travis Hirschi. (1990). A General Theory of Crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press

Hagan, John. (1997). Crime and capitalization: Toward a developmental theory of street crime in America. Pp. 287–308 in Terence P. Thornberry (Ed.), Developmental Theories of Crime and Delinquency. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers

Hagedorn, John H. (1998). People and Folks: Gangs, Crime and the Underclass in a Rustbelt City (2nd Ed.). Chicago, IL: Lake View Press

Harris, Mary G. (1994). Cholas, Mexican-American girls, and gangs. Sex Roles 30:289–301CrossRef Google Scholar

Hawkins, J. David, Catalano, Richard F., and Miller, Janet Y.. (1992). Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: Implications for substance abuse prevention. Psychological Bulletin 112:64–105CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hawkins, J. David, Richard F. Catalano, Diane M. Morrison, Julie O'Donnell, Robert D. Abbott, and L. Edward Day. (1992). The Seattle Social Development Project: Effects of the first four years of protective factors and problem behaviors. Pp. 139–161 in Joan McCord and Richard E. Tremblay (Eds.), Preventing Antisocial Behavior: Interventions From Birth Through Adolescence. New York: Guilford

Hawkins, J. David and Fraser, Mark W.. (1985). Social networks of street drug users: A comparison of two theories. Social Work Research Abstracts 85:3–12CrossRef Google Scholar

Hawkins, J. David, Todd Herrenkohl, David P. Farrington, Devon Brewer, Richard F. Catalano, and Tracy W. Harachi. (1998). A review of predictors of youth violence. Pp. 106–146 in Rolf Loeber and David P. Farrington (Eds.), Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders: Risk Factors and Successful Interventions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Henggeler, Scott W., Melton, Gary B., and Smith, Linda A.. (1992). Family preservation using multisystemic therapy: An effective alternative to incarcerating serious juvenile offenders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 60:953–961CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hetherington, E. Mavis and Paul B. Baltes. (1988). Child psychology and life-span development. Pp. 1–19 in E. Mavis Hetherington, Richard M. Lerner, and Marion Perlmutter (Eds.), Child Development in Life-Span Perspective. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum

Hill, Karl G., J. David Hawkins, Richard F. Catalano, Richard Kosterman, Robert D. Abbott, and T. Edwards. (1996). The Longitudinal Dynamics of Gang Membership and Problem Behavior: A Replication and Extension of the Denver and Rochester Gang Studies in Seattle. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Chicago, November

Hill, Karl G., J. David Hawkins, Richard F. Catalano, Eugene Maguin, and Richard Kosterman. (1995). The Role of Gang Membership in Delinquency, Substance Use, and Violent Offending. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Boston, November 17

Hill, Karl G., Howell, James C., Hawkins, J. David and Battin-Pearson, Sara R.. (1999). Childhood risk factors for adolescent gang membership: Results from the Seattle Social Development Project. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 36:300–322CrossRef Google Scholar

Hindelang, Michael J., Travis Hirschi, and Joseph G. Weis. (1981). Measuring Delinquency. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage

Hirschi, Travis. (1969). Causes of Delinquency. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press

Horowitz, Ruth. (1983). Honor and the American Dream. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press

Howell, James C. (1994). Recent gang research: Program and policy implications. Crime and Delinquency 40:495–515CrossRef Google Scholar

Howell, James C. (1995). Guide for Implementing the Comprehensive Strategy for Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

Howell, James C. (1997). Juvenile Justice & Youth Violence. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Howell, James C. (1998). Promising programs for youth gang violence prevention and intervention. Pp. 284–312 in Rolf Loeber and David P. Farrington (Eds.), Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders: Risk Factors and Successful Interventions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Howell, James C. (2000). Youth Gang Programs and Strategies. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

Howell, James C. and Debra K. Gleason. (Forthcoming). Modern-Day Youth Gangs. Juvenile Justice Bulletin. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

Hudson, Walter. (1982). The Clinical Measurement Package: A Field Manual. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press

Huff, C. Ronald. (1996). The criminal behavior of gang members and nongang at-risk youth. Pp. 75–102 in C. Ronald Huff (Ed.), Gangs in America (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Huizinga, David. (1996). The Influence of Delinquent Peers, Gangs, and Co-Offending on Violence. Fact Sheet. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

Huizinga, David (1997). Gangs and the Volume of Crime. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Western Society of Criminology, Honolulu

Huizinga, David and Delbert, S. Elliott. (1986). Reassessing the reliability and validity of self-report delinquency measures. Journal of Quantitative Criminology 2:293–327Google Scholar

Huizinga, David, Barbara J. Morse, and Delbert S. Elliott. (1992). The National Youth Survey: An Overview and Description of Recent Findings. Boulder, CO: Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado

Jang, Sung Joon. (1999). Age-varying effects of family, school, and peers on delinquency: A multilevel modeling test of interactional theory. Criminology 37:643–85CrossRef Google Scholar

Jankowski, Martin Sanchez. (1991). Islands in the Street: Gangs and American Urban Society. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press

Jansyn, Leon R. Jr. (1966). Solidarity and delinquency in a street corner group. American Sociological Review 31:600–614CrossRef Google Scholar

Jessor, Richard, John E. Donovan, and Frances M. Costa. (1991). Beyond Adolescence: Problem Behavior and Young Adult Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Jessor, Richard and Shirley L. Jessor. (1977). Problem Behavior and Psychosocial Development: A Longitudinal Study of Youth. New York: Academic Press

Kamerman, Sheila B. (1981). Young people as individuals and as family members: The implications for public policy. Pp. 101–114 in Alvin C. Eurich (Ed.), Major Transitions in the Human Life Cycle. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books

Kandel, Denise B. (1978). Similarity in real life adolescent friendship pairs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 36:306–312CrossRef Google Scholar

Kandel, Denise B., Chen, Kevin, and Gill, Andrew. (1995). The impact of drug use on earnings: A life-span perspective. Social Forces 74:243–270CrossRef Google Scholar

Kandel, Denise B., and Davies, Mark. (1991). Friendship networks, intimacy and illicit drug use in young adulthood: A comparison of two competing theories. Criminology 29:441–470CrossRef Google Scholar

Kandel, Denise B., Davies, Mark, Karus, Daniel, and Yamaguchi, Kazuo. (1986). The consequences in young adulthood of adolescent drug involvement. Archives of General Psychiatry 43:746–754CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kaplan, Howard B. and Liu, Xiaoru. (1994). A longitudinal analysis of mediating variables in the drug use-dropping out relationship. Criminology 32:415–439CrossRef Google Scholar

Kennedy, David M., Piehl, Anne M., and Braga, Anthony A.. (1996). Youth violence in Boston: Gun markets, serious youth offenders, and a use-reduction strategy. Law and Contemporary Problems 59:147–196CrossRef Google Scholar

Kish, Leslie. (1965). Survey Sampling. New York: Wiley

Klein, Malcolm W. (1968). The Ladino Hills Project: Final Report. Los Angeles, CA: University of Southern California, Youth Studies Center

Klein, Malcolm W. (1969). Gang cohesiveness, delinquency, and a street-work program. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 6:135–166CrossRef

Klein, Malcolm W. (1971). Street Gangs and Street Workers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall

Klein, Malcolm W. (1995). The American Street Gang: Its Nature, Prevalence, and Control. New York: Oxford University Press

Klein, Malcolm W. (1996). Gangs in the United States and Europe. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 4:63–80CrossRef

Klein, Malcolm W. (2000). Recommendations for the Eurogang Working Group on Conceptualizations/Definitions. Unpublished manuscript

Klein, Malcolm W. and Crawford, Lois Y.. (1967). Groups, gangs and cohesiveness. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 4:63–75CrossRef Google Scholar

Klein, Malcolm W., Gordon, Margaret A., and Maxson, Cheryl L.. (1986). The impact of police investigation on police-reported rates of gang and nongang homicides. Criminology 2:489–512CrossRef Google Scholar

Klein, Malcolm W. and Cheryl L. Maxson. (1989). Street gang violence. Pp. 198–234 in Neil A. Weiner and Marvin E. Wolfgang (Eds.), Violent Crime, Violent Criminals. Newbury Park, CA: Sage

Klein, Malcolm W., Maxson, Cheryl L., and Cunningham, Lea C.. (1991). Crack, street gangs, and violence. Criminology 29:623–650CrossRef Google Scholar

Kobrin, Solomon. (1959). The Chicago Area Project: A twenty-five year assessment. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 322:19–29CrossRef Google Scholar

Krohn, Marvin D. (1986). The web of conformity: A network approach to the explanation of delinquent behavior. Social Problems 33:581–593CrossRef Google Scholar

Krohn, Marvin D., Lizotte, Alan J., and Perez, Cynthia M.. (1997). The interrelationship between substance use and precocious transitions to adult statuses. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 38:87–103CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Krohn, Marvin D., Lizotte, Alan J., Thornberry, Terence P., Smith, Carolyn A., and McDowall, David. (1996). Reciprocal causal relationships among drug use, peers, and beliefs: A five-wave panel model. Journal of Drug Issues 26:405–428CrossRef Google Scholar

Krohn, Marvin D., Massey, James L., and Zielinski, Mary A.. (1988). Role overlap, network multiplexity, and adolescent deviant behavior. Social Psychology Quarterly 51:346–356CrossRef Google Scholar

Krohn, Marvin D., Stern, Susan B., Thornberry, Terence P., and Sung, Joon Jang. (1992). The measurement of family process variables: An examination of adolescent and parent perceptions of family life on delinquent behavior. Journal of Quantitative Criminology 8:287–315CrossRef Google Scholar

Krohn, Marvin D. and Terence P. Thornberry. (1993). Network theory: A model for understanding drug abuse among African-American and Hispanic youth. Pp. 102–128 in Mario De La Rosa and Juan-Luis Recio Adrados (Eds.), Drug Abuse Among Minority Youth: Advances in Research Methodology. NIDA Research Monograph 130. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Krohn, Marvin D. and Terence P. Thornberry (1999). Retention of minority populations in panel studies of drug use. Drugs & Society 14:185–207

Krohn, Marvin D., Terence. P. Thornberry, Lori Collins-Hall, and Alan J. Lizotte. (1995). School dropout, delinquent behavior, and drug use: An examination of the causes and consequences of dropping out of school. Pp. 163–183 in Howard B. Kaplan (Ed.), Drugs, Crime, and Other Deviant Adaptations: Longitudinal Studies. New York: Plenum PressCrossRef

Krohn, Marvin D., Terence P. Thornberry, Craig Rivera, and Marc LeBlanc. (2001). Later delinquency careers. Pp. 67–93 in Rolf Loeber and David P. Farrington (Eds.), Child Delinquents: Development, Intervention, and Service Needs. Thousand Oaks, CA: SageCrossRef

Lacourse, Eric, Nagin, Daniel S., Tremblay, Richard E., Vitaro, Frank, and Claes, Michel. (Forthcoming). Developmental trajectories of boys' delinquent group membership and facilitation of violent behaviors during adolescence. Development and PsychopathologyGoogle Scholar

Lahey, Benjamin B., Gordon, Rachel A., Loeber, Rolf, Stouthamer-Loeber, Magda, and Farrington, David P.. (1999). Boys who join gangs: A prospective study of predictors of first gang entry. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 27:261–276CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lasley, James (1998). “Designing Out” Gang Homicides and Street Assaults. Research in Brief. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice

LeBlanc, Marc and Lanctôt, Nadine. (1998). Social and psychological characteristics of gang members according to the gang structure and its subcultural and ethnic makeup. Journal of Gang Research 5:15–28Google Scholar

Lizotte, Alan J., Trudy L. Bonsell, David McDowall, Marvin D. Krohn, and Terence P. Thornberry. (Forthcoming). Carrying guns and involvement in crime. In Robert A. Silverman, Terence P. Thornberry, Bernard Cohen, and Barry Krisberg. Crime and Justice at the Millennium: Essays by and in Honor of Marvin E. Wolfgang. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers

Lizotte, Alan J., Chard-Wierschem, Deborah J., Loeber, Rolf, and Stern, Susan B.. (1992). A shortened behavior checklist for delinquency studies. Journal of Quantitative Criminology 8:233–245CrossRef Google Scholar

Lizotte, Alan J., Howard, Gregory J., Krohn, Marvin D., and Thornberry, Terence P.. (1997). Patterns of illegal gun carrying among young urban males. Valparaiso University Law Review 31:375–393Google Scholar

Lizotte, Alan J., Krohn, Marvin D., Howell, James C., Tobin, Kimberly, and Howard, Gregory J.. (2000). Factors influencing gun carrying among young urban males over the adolescent-young adult life course. Criminology 38:811–834CrossRef Google Scholar

Loeber, Rolf and David P. Farrington. (Eds.) (1998). Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders: Risk Factors and Successful Interventions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Loeber, Rolf, and Magda Stouthamer-Loeber. (1986). Family factors as correlates and predictors of juvenile conduct problems and delinquency. Pp. 29–149 in Michael H. Tonry and Norval Morris (Eds.), Crime and Justice: An Annual Review of Research, (Vol. 7). Chicago: University of Chicago PressCrossRef

Magnusson, David. (1988). Individual Development From an Interactional Perspective: A Longitudinal Study. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum

Mattick, Hans and Nathan S. Caplan. (1962). Chicago Youth Development Project: The Chicago Boys Club. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute of Social Research

Maxson, Cheryl L. and Malcolm W. Klein. (1990). Street gang violence: Twice as great, or half as great? Pp. 71–100 in C. Ronald Huff (Ed.), Gangs in America. Newbury Park, CA: Sage

Maxson, Cheryl L., Malcolm W. Klein, and Lea C. Cunningham. (1991). Street Gangs & Drug Sales. Final Report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice

Mensch, Barbara S. and Kandel, Denise B.. (1988). Dropping out of high school and drug involvement. Sociology of Education 61:95–113CrossRef Google Scholar

Mihalic, Sharon, Katherine Irwin, Delbert S. Elliott, Abigail Fagan, and Diane Hansen. (2001). Blueprints for Violence Prevention. Juvenile Justice Bulletin. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

Miller, Jody. (1998). Gender and victimization risk among young women in youth gangs. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 35:429–453CrossRef Google Scholar

Miller, Jody (2001). One of the Guys: Girls, Gangs and Gender. New York: Oxford University Press

Miller, Jody and Brunson, Rod K.. (2000). Gender dynamics in youth gangs: A comparison of male and female accounts. Justice Quarterly 17:419–448CrossRef Google Scholar

Miller, Jody and Decker, Scott H.. (2001). Young women and gang violence: Gender, street offending, and violent victimization in gangs. Justice Quarterly 18:115–140CrossRef Google Scholar

Miller, Walter B.. (1958). Lower class culture as a generating milieu of gang delinquency. Journal of Social Issues 14:5–19CrossRef Google Scholar

Miller, Walter B. (1962). The impact of a “total community” delinquency control project. Social Problems 10:168–191CrossRef

Miller, Walter B. (1966). Violent crimes by city gangs. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 364:96–112CrossRef

Miller, Walter B. (1975). Violence by Youth Gangs and Youth Groups as a Crime Problem in Major American Cities. Report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

Miller, Walter B. (1982). Crime by youth gangs and groups in the United States. Report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

Miller, Walter B., Geertz, Hildred, and Cutter, Henry S. G.. (1961). Aggression in a boys street-corner group. Psychiatry 24:283–298CrossRef Google Scholar

Moffitt, Terrie E. (1997). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent offending: A complementary pair of developmental theories. Pp. 11–54 in Terence P. Thornberry (Ed.), Development Theories of Crime and Delinquency, New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers

Moore, Joan W. (1978). Homeboys. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press

Moore, Joan W. (1991). Going Down to the Barrio: Homeboys and Homegirls in Change. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press

Moore, Joan and John Hagedorn. (2001). Female Gangs: A Focus on Research. Juvenile Justice Bulletin. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

Moore, John P. and Ivan L. Cook. (1999). Highlights of the 1998 National Youth Gang Survey. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

Nagin, Daniel S. and Farrington, David P.. (1992). The stability of criminal potential from childhood to adulthood. Criminology 30:235–260CrossRef Google Scholar

Nagin, Daniel S. and Paternoster, Raymond. (1991). On the relationship of past and future participation in delinquency. Criminology 29:163–189CrossRef Google Scholar

National Youth Gang Center. (1997). The 1995 National Youth Gang Survey. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

Newcomb, Michael D. and Peter M. Bentler. (1988). Consequences of Adolescent Drug Use: Impact on the Lives of Young Adults. Newbury Park, CA: Sage

Newton, George D. and Franklin E. Zimring. (1969). Firearms and Violence in American Life: A Staff Report to the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office

Nirdorf, B. J. (1988). Gang Alternative and Prevention Program: Program Policy and Procedure Handbook. Los Angeles, CA: County of Los Angeles Probation Department

Palumbo, Dennis J. and Ferguson, Jennifer L.. (1995). Evaluating Gang Resistance Education and Training (GREAT): Is the Impact the Same as That of Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE)?Evaluation Review 19:591–619CrossRef Google Scholar

Patterson, Gerald R., John B. Reid, and Thomas J. Dishion. (1992). Antisocial Boys. Eugene, OR: Castalia Press

Radloff, Lenore S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement 1:385–401CrossRef Google Scholar

Rice, Robert. (1963, October 19). A reporter at large: The Persian queens. New Yorker 39:139ffGoogle Scholar

Rindfuss, Ronald R. (1991). The young adult years: Diversity, structural change, and fertility. Demography 28:493–512CrossRef Google Scholar

Rindfuss, Ronald R., Swicegood, C. Gray, and Rosenfeld, Rachel A.. (1987). Disorder in the life course: How common and does it matter?American Sociological Review 52:785–801CrossRef Google Scholar

Robins, Lee N. (1966). Deviant Children Grown Up. Baltimore, MD: Williams and Mary

Rosenberg, Morris. (1965). Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press

Rosenfeld, Richard, Bray, Timothy M., and Egley, Arlen. (1999). Facilitating violence: A comparison of gang-motivated, gang-affiliated, and non-gang youth homicides. Journal of Quantitative Criminology 15:495–516CrossRef Google Scholar

Rutter, Michael. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 57:316–331CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Sampson, Robert J. and John Laub. (1993). Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points Through Life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

Schwartz, Audrey J. (1989). Middle-class educational values among Latino gang members in East Los Angeles County high schools. Urban Education 24:323–342CrossRef Google Scholar

Schweinhart, Lawrence J., Helen V. Barnes, and David P. Weikart. (1993). Significant Benefits: The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study Through Age 27. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Press

Sellin, Thorsten. (1938). Culture, Conflict, and Crime. New York: Social Science Research Council

Shelden, Randall G., Snodgrass, Ted, and Snodgrass, Pam. (1992). Comparing gang and non-gang offenders: Some tentative findings. Gang Journal 1:73–85Google Scholar

Sheley, Joseph F. and James D. Wright. (1993). Gun Acquisition and Possession in Selected Juvenile Samples. Research in Brief. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice

Sheley, Joseph F. and James D. Wright (1995). In the Line of Fire: Youth, Guns and Violence in Urban America. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine De Gruyter

Sherman, Lawrence W., Denise Gottfredson, Doris L. MacKenzie, John E. Eck, Peter Reuter, and Shawn Bushway. (1997). Preventing Crime: What Works, What Doesn't, What's Promising. Report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice

Short, James F., Jr. (1990). New wine in old bottles? Change and continuity in American gangs. Pp. 223–239 in C. Ronald Huff (Ed.), Gangs in America. Newbury Park, CA: Sage

Short, James F., Jr. and Fred L. Strodtbeck. (1965). Group Process and Gang Delinquency. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press

Skolnick, Jerome H., Theodore Correl, and Roger Rabb. (1988). The Social Structure of Street Dealing. Sacramento, CA: Office of the Attorney General of the State of California

Small, Stephen A. and Luster, Tom. (1994). Adolescent sexual activity: An ecological risk-factor approach. Journal of Marriage and the Family 56:181–192CrossRef Google Scholar

Smith, Carolyn A. (1997). Factors associated with early sexual activity among urban adolescents. Social Work 42:334–346CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Smith, Carolyn A. and Thornberry, Terence P.. (1995). The relationship between childhood maltreatment and adolescent involvement in delinquency. Criminology 33:451–481CrossRef Google Scholar

Spergel, Irving A. (1964). Slumtown, Racketville, Haulburg. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press

Spergel, Irving A. (1966). Street Gang Work: Theory and Practice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley

Spergel, Irving A. (1990). Youth gangs: Continuity and change. Pp. 171–275 in Michael Tonry and Norval Morris (Eds.), Crime and Justice: A Review of Research (Vol. 12). Chicago: University of Chicago PressCrossRef

Spergel, Irving A.(1995). The Youth Gang Problem. New York: Oxford University Press

Spergel, Irving A. and G. David Curry (1990). Strategies and perceived agency effectiveness in dealing with the youth gang problem. Pp. 288–309 in C. Ronald Huff (Ed.), Gangs in America. Newbury Park, CA: Sage

Spergel, Irving A. and Grossman, Susan F.. (1997). The Little Village Project: A community approach to the gang problem. Social Work 42:456–470CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Spergel, Irving A., Susan F. Grossman, and Wa Kwai Ming. (1998). The Little Village Gang Violence Reduction Program: A three year evaluation. Unpublished report. University of Chicago, School of Social Service Administration

Stern, Susan B. and Smith, Carolyn A.. (1995). Family processes and delinquency in an ecological context. Social Service Review 69:703–731CrossRef Google Scholar

Strodtbeck, Fred L. and Short, James F. Jr. (1964). An explanation of gang action. Social Problems 12:127–140CrossRef Google Scholar

Sudman, Seymour. (1976). Applied Sampling. New York: Academic Press

Taylor, Carl S. (1990). Gang imperialism. Pp. 103–115 in C. Ronald Huff (Ed.), Gangs in America. Newbury Park, CA: Sage

Thornberry, Terence P. (1987). Toward an interactional theory of delinquency. Criminology 25: 863–892CrossRef Google Scholar

Thornberry, Terence P. (1998). Membership in youth gangs and involvement in serious and violent offending. Pp. 147–166 in Rolf Loeber and David P. Farrington (Eds.), Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders: Risk Factors and Successful Interventions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Thornberry, Terence P., Bjerregaard, Beth, and Miles, William C.. (1993a). The consequences of respondent attrition in panel studies: A simulation based on the Rochester Youth Development Study. Journal of Quantitative Criminology 9:127–158CrossRef Google Scholar

Thornberry, Terence P. and Marvin D. Krohn. (1997). Peers, drug use, and delinquency. Pp. 218–233 in David M. Stoff, James Breiling, and Jack D. Maser (Eds.), Handbook of Antisocial Behavior. New York: Wiley

Thornberry, Terence P. and Marvin D. Krohn (2000). The self-report method for measuring delinquency and crime. Pp. 33–83 in David Duffee, Robert D. Crutchfield, Steven Mastrofski, Lorraine Mazerolle, David McDowall, and Brian Ostrom (Eds.), CJ 2000: Innovations in Measurement and Analysis (Vol. 4). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice

Thornberry, Terence P. and Marvin D. Krohn (2001). The development of delinquency: An interactional perspective. Pp. 289–305 Susan O. White (Ed.), Handbook of Youth and Justice. New York: PlenumCrossRef

Thornberry, Terence P., Krohn, Marvin D., Lizotte, Alan J., and Chard-Wierschem, Deborah. (1993b). The role of juvenile gangs in facilitating delinquent behavior. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 30:55–87CrossRef Google Scholar

Thornberry, Terence P., Lizotte, Alan J., Krohn, Marvin D., Farnworth, Margaret, and Sung, Joon Jang. (1994). Delinquent peers, beliefs, and delinquent behavior: A longitudinal test of interactional theory. Criminology 32:47–83CrossRef Google Scholar

Thornberry, Terence P. and Pamela K. Porter. (2001). Advantages of longitudinal research designs in studying gang behavior. Pp. 59–77 in Malcolm W. Klein, Hans-Juergen Kerner, Cheryl Maxson, and Elmar G. M. Weitekamp (Eds.), The Eurogang Paradox. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers

Thornberry, Terence P., Smith, Carolyn A., and Howard, Gregory J.. (1997). Risk factors for teenage fatherhood. Journal of Marriage and the Family 59:505–522CrossRef Google Scholar

Thrasher, Frederic M. (1927). The Gang: A Study of 1,313 Gangs in Chicago. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press

Thrasher, Frederic M. (1936). The boys' club and juvenile delinquency. American Journal of Sociology 41:66–80

Tracy, Paul E. (1979). Subcultural Delinquency: A Comparison of the Incidence and Seriousness of Gang and Nongang Member Offensivity. Unpublished manuscript. University of Pennsylvania, Center for Studies in Criminology and Criminal Law

Tremblay, Richard E. (1996). Personal Communication, November

Tremblay, Richard E., Louise C. Masse, Linda Pagani, and Frank Vitaro. (1996). From childhood physical aggression to adolescent maladjustment: The Montreal Prevention Experiment. Pp. 268–298 in Ray D. Peters and Robert J. McMahon (Eds.), Preventing Childhood Disorders, Substance Abuse, and Delinquency. Thousand Oaks, CA: SageCrossRef

Tremblay, Richard E., Pihl, Robert O., Vitaro, Frank, and Dobkin, Patricia L.. (1994). Predicting early onset of male antisocial behavior from preschool behavior. Archives of General Psychiatry 51:732–739CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2001). Youth Violence: A Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, MD: Department of Health and Human Services

Venkatesh, Sudhir Alladi. (1998). Gender and outlaw capitalism: A historical account of the Black Sisters United “girl gang”Signs 23:683–709CrossRef Google Scholar

Vigil, James Diego. (1988). Barrio Gangs: Street Life and Identity in Southern California. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press

Wang, Alvin Y. (1994). Pride and prejudice in high school gang members. Adolescence 29:279–291Google Scholar PubMed

Werner, Emmy E. and Ruth S. Smith. (1982). Vulnerable but Invincible: A Longitudinal Study of Resilient Children and Youth. New York: McGraw-Hill

Werner, Emmy E. and Ruth S. Smith. (1992). Overcoming the Odds: High Risk Children from Birth to Adulthood. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press

Wilson, William J. (1987). The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press

Winfree, L. Thomas Jr., Teresa, Vigil Backstrom, and Larry, G. Mays. (1994). Social learning theory, self-reported delinquency, and youth gangs: A new twist on a general theory of crime and delinquency. Youth and Society 26:147–177CrossRef Google Scholar

Wister, Andrew V. and Avison, William R.. (1982). Friendly persuasion: A social network analysis of sex differences in marijuana use. International Journal of Addictions 17:523–541CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Wright, James D. and Peter H. Rossi. (1986). Armed and Considered Dangerous: A Survey of Felons and their Firearms. New York: Aldine De Gruyter

Yablonsky, Lewis. (1962). The Violent Gang. New York: Macmillan

Yamaguchi, Kazuo and Kandel, Denise B.. (1985a). Dynamic relationships between premarital cohabitation and illicit drug use: An event history analysis of role selection and role socialization. American Sociological Review 50:530–546CrossRef Google Scholar

Yamaguchi, Kazuo and Denise B. Kandel (1985b). On the resolution of role incompatibility: A life event history analysis of family roles and marijuana use. American Journal of Sociology 90:1284–1325CrossRef