Center for Legal Advocacy v. Bicha et al., U.S. District Court of Colorado, Case No. 1:2011cv02285. 2011.Google Scholar

Redding, RE, Murrie, DC. Judicial decision making about forensic mental health evidence. In: Goldstein, AM, ed. Forensic Psychology: Emerging Topics and Expanding Roles. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc; 2007: 683–707.Google Scholar

Acklin, MW, Fuger, K, Gowensmith, WN. Examiner agreement and judicial consensus in forensic mental health evaluations. J Forensic Psychol Pract. 2015; 15(4): 318–343.Google Scholar

Gowensmith, WN, Murrie, DC, Boccaccini, MT. Field reliability of competence to stand trial opinions: how often do evaluators agree, and what do judges decide when evaluators disagree? Law Hum Behav. 2012; 36(2): 130–139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Zapf, PA, Hubbard, KL, Cooper, VG, et al. Have the courts abdicated their responsibility for determination of competency to stand trial to clinicians? J Forensic Psychol Pract. 2004; 4(1): 27–44.Google Scholar

Cruise, KR, Rogers, R. An analysis of competency to stand trial: an integration of case law and clinical knowledge. Behav Sci Law. 1998; 16(1): 35–50.Google Scholar

Mowen, E. Charges dismissed in crash which claimed family. Register Herald. July 7, 2018. www.registerherald.com/news/22514/charges-dismissed-in-crash-which-claimed-family (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Eaton, E. Man who killed Elmendorf police chief found not guilty by reason of insanity. San Antonio Express News. July 2, 2018. www.expressnews.com/news/local/article/Man-who-killed-Elemendorf-police-chief-found-not-13044383.php (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Gowensmith, WN. Resolution or resignation: the role of forensic mental health professionals amidst the competency services crisis. Psychol Public Policy Law. 2019; 25(1): 1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Locklair, B. Due process problems with civil commitment of incompetent defendants: the current round of litigation and the next. Presentation to the American Psychology-Law Society annual conference; 2016, Atlanta, GA.Google Scholar

Bryson, CN, Boccaccini, MT, Gowensmith, WN, et al. Does time matter in competency to stand trial evaluations? Presentation to the annual meeting of the American Psychology-Law Society; March 2019, Portland, OR.Google Scholar

Gowensmith, WN, Metroz, H, Bratcher, J. The impact of timing on competency to stand trial evaluations. Presentation to the annual meeting of the American Psychology-Law Society; March 2016, Atlanta, GA.Google Scholar

Nguyen, AH, Acklin, MW, Fuger, K, et al. Freedom in paradise: quality of conditional release reports submitted to the Hawaii judiciary. Int J Law Psychiatry. 2011; 34(5): 341–348.Google Scholar

Robinson, R, Acklin, MW. Fitness in paradise: quality of forensic reports submitted to the Hawaii judiciary. Int J Law Psychiatry. 2010; 33: 131–137.Google Scholar

Boccaccini, MT, Chevalier, CS, Murrie, DC, et al. Psychopathy – checklist revised use and reporting practices in sexually violent predator evaluations. Sex Abuse. 2017; 29(6): 592–614.Google Scholar

Parker, G. Come see the bias inherent in the system! J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2016; 44(4): 411–414.Google ScholarPubMed

Chevalier, CS, Boccaccini, MT, Murrie, DC, et al. Static-99R reporting practices in sexually violent predator cases: does norm selection reflect adversarial allegiance? Law Hum Behav. 2015; 39(3): 209–218.Google Scholar

McCallum, KE, MacLean, N, Gowensmith, WN. The impact of defendant ethnicity on the psycho-legal opinion of forensic evaluators. Int J Law Psychiatry. 2014; 39: 6–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Murrie, DC, Boccaccini, MT, Guarnera, LA, et al. Are forensic experts biased by the side that retained them? Psychol Sci. 2013; 24(10): 1889–1897.Google Scholar

Murrie, DC, Boccaccini, M, Zapf, PA, et al. Clinician variation in findings of competence to stand trial. Psychol Public Policy Law. 2008; 14: 177–193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Murrie, DC, Warren, JI. Clinician variation in rates of legal sanity opinions: implications for self-monitoring. Prof Psychol. 2005; 36: 519–524.Google Scholar

Hagen, MA. Whores of the Court: the Fraud of Psychiatric Testimony and the Rape of American Justice. New York, NY, US: Harper Collins Publishers; 1997.Google Scholar

Bergeron, ML. The use of psychiatric expertise in the forensic context: balm or blunder. Windsor Yearb Access Justice. 1994; 14: 221.Google Scholar

Faust, D, Ziskin, J. The expert witness in psychology and psychiatry. Science. 1988; 241(4861): 31–35.Google Scholar

Melton, GB, Petrila, J, Poythress, NG, et al. Psychological Evaluations for the Courts: A Handbook for Mental Health Professionals and Lawyers, 3rd edn. New York, NY: The Guilford Press; 2007.Google Scholar

Warren, JI, Chuahan, P, Kois, L, et al. Factors influencing 2260 opinions of defendants’ restorability to adjudicative competency. Psychol Public Policy Law. 2013; 19: 498–508.Google Scholar

Fitch, WL. Assessment #3. Forensic mental health services in the United States: 2014. (Report No. 3, HHSS2834200IT). Alexandria, VA: National Association of State Mental Health Program Directors; 2014.Google Scholar

Wisconsin Department of Health Services. 2015 annual report. (Report No. P-00568). Madison, WI: Wisconsin Department of Health Services; 2015.Google Scholar

Joint Legislative and Audit Review Committee. State of Washington Final Report: Competency to stand trial, phase II (Report No. 14–1). Olympia, WA: Joint Legislative and Audit Review Committee; 2014.Google Scholar

Colorado Department of Human Services Office of Behavioural Health. Needs analysis: current status, strategic positioning, and future planning. Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education Mental Health Program; April 2015.Google Scholar

Sewall, A. L.A. County supervisors order report on unexplained surge in mental competency cases. Los Angeles Times; March 8, 2016. www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-mental-competency-cases-20160308-story.html (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Gowensmith, WN, Murrie, DC, Packer, IK. Report in Response to the Trueblood v. State Washington’s Department of Social and Health Services. Olympia, WA: Office of Attorney General, State of Washington; 2015.Google Scholar

Oregon Advocacy Center v. Mink. No. 02–35530, 9th Cir.; 2003.Google Scholar

Trueblood v. State of Washington Department of Human and Social Services. No. 2:2014cv01178, Washington Western District Court; 2015.Google Scholar

Pirelli, G, Gottdiener, WH, Zapf, PA. A meta-analytic review of competency to stand trial research. Psychol Public Policy Law. 2011; 17(1): 1–53.Google Scholar

Roskes, personal communication, December 12, 2014.Google Scholar

Bryson, CN, Boccaccini, MT, Gowensmith, WN, et al. Time matters in competency to stand trial evaluations. Presentation to the American Psychology-Law Society annual meeting; March 2018, Memphis, TN.Google Scholar

Skeem, JL, Golding, SL, Cohn, NB, et al. Logic and reliability of evaluations of competence to stand trial. Law Hum Behav. 1998; 22(5): 519–547.Google Scholar

Gowensmith, WN, Pinals, DA, Karas, AC. States’ standards for training and certifying evaluators of competency to stand trial. J Forensic Psychol Pract. 2015; 15(4): 295–317.Google Scholar

Petrella, RC, Poythress, NG. The quality of forensic evaluations: an interdisciplinary study. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1983; 51(1): 76–85.Google Scholar

Poythress, NG, Otto, RK, Heilbrun, K. Pretrial evaluations for criminal courts: contemporary models of service delivery. J Ment Health Adm. 1991; 18: 198–208.Google Scholar

Kois, L, Pearson, J, Chauhan, P, et al. Competency to stand trial among female inpatients. Law Hum Behav, 2013; 37(4): 231–240.Google Scholar

Mossman, D, Noffsinger, SG, Ash, P, et al. AAPL practice guideline for the forensic psychiatric evaluation of competence to stand trial. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2007; 35: S3–S72.Google ScholarPubMed

Pinals, DA, Tillbrook, CE, Mumley, DL. Practical application of the MacArthur competence assessment tool – criminal adjudication (MacCAT-CA) in a public sector forensic setting. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law 2006; 34: 179–188.Google Scholar

Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 405 U.S. 597 (1993).Google Scholar

Boccaccini, MT, Turner, D, Murrie, DC. Do some evaluators report consistently higher or lower psychopathy scores than others?: findings from a state wide sample of sexually violent predator evaluations. Psychol Public Policy Law. 2008; 14: 262–283.Google Scholar

Dusky v. United States, 362 U.S. 402 (1960).Google Scholar

Mossman, D. When forensic examiners disagree: bias, or just inaccuracy? Psychol Public Policy Law. 2013; 19(1): 40–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Murrie, DC, Boccaccini, MT, Turner, D, et al. Rater (dis)agreement on risk assessment measures in sexually violent predator proceedings: evidence of adversarial allegiance in forensic evaluation? Psychol Public Policy Law. 2009; 15: 19–53.Google Scholar

Callahan, LA, Silver, E. Factors associated with the conditional release of persons acquitted by reason of insanity: a decision tree approach. Law Hum Behav. 1998; 22: 147–163.Google Scholar

Gowensmith, WN, Murrie, DC, Boccaccini, MT. Field reliability of competence to stand trial opinions: how often do evaluators agree, and what do judges decide when evaluators disagree? Law Hum Behav. 2012; 36(2): 130–139.Google Scholar

Dror, IE, Murrie, DC. A hierarchy of expert performance applied to forensic psychological assessments. Psychol Public Policy Law. 2018; 24(1): 11–23.Google Scholar

Mossman, D, Bowen, MD, Vanness, DJ, et al. Quantifying the accuracy of forensic examiners in the absence of a “gold standard”. Law Hum Behav. 2010; 34(5): 402–417.Google Scholar

Gowensmith, WN, Murrie, DC, Boccaccini, MT, et al. Field reliability influences field validity: risk assessments of individuals found not guilty by reason of insanity. Psychol Assess. 2017; 29(6): 786–794.Google Scholar

Gowensmith, WN, Sledd, M, Sessarego, S. The impact of stringent certification standards on forensic evaluator reliability: further analysis. Paper presented at: The Annual Meeting of the American Psychology-Law Society; March 2015; San Diego, CA.Google Scholar

National Judicial College. Mental competencies: best practices model. 2011–2012. www.mentalcompetency.org/pdf/BP-Model.pdf (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Gowensmith, WN, McCallum, KE. Mirror, mirror on the wall, who’s the least biased of them all?: dangers and potential solutions regarding bias in forensic psychological evaluations. S Afr J Psychol. 2019; 49(2): 165–176.Google Scholar

Pronin, E, Kugler, MB. Valuing thoughts, ignoring behavior: the introspection illusion as a source of the bias blind spot. J Exp Soc Psychol. 2007; 43(4): 565–578.Google Scholar

Neal, T, Grisso, T. The cognitive underpinnings of bias in forensic mental health evaluations. Psychol Public Policy Law. 2014; 20(2): 200–211.Google Scholar

Brodsky, SL. Testifying in Court: Guidelines and Maxims for the Expert Witness. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 1991.Google Scholar

Brodsky, SL. The Expert Expert Witness. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 1999.Google Scholar

Gowensmith, WN, McCallum, KE, Nadkarni, L, et al. Monitoring potential bias within a forensic evaluation agency. Paper presented at: The Annual Meeting of the American Psychology-Law Society; March 2019; Portland, OR.Google Scholar

Pinals, DA, Fitch, WL, Warburton, K. Assessment #10: Forensic patients in state psychiatric hospitals: 1999–2016. /sites/default/files/TACPaper.10.Forensic-Patients-in-State- Hospitals_508C_v2.pdf. August 2017. (Accessed April 1, 2019.)Google Scholar

Pinals, DA, Fuller, DA. Beyond beds: the vital role of a full continuum of care. Treatment Advocacy Centre, National Association of State Mental Health Program Directors; 2017. www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/storage/documents/beyond-beds.pdf (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Steadman, HJ, Callahan, L. Reducing the Pennsylvania incompetency to stand trial restoration waitlist: more than just beds. www.dhs.pa.gov/cs/groups/webcontent/documents/document/c_269519.pdf. December 2017. (Accessed April 1, 2019.)Google Scholar

Wik, A, Hollen, V, Fisher, WH. Assessment #9: Forensic patients in state psychiatric hospitals: 1999–2016. Ninth in a series of ten briefs addressing: what is the inpatient bed need if you have a best practice continuum of care? National Association of State Mental Health Program Directors; 2017. www.nri-inc.org/media/1318/tac-paper-9-forensic-patients-in-state-hospitals-final-09-05-2017.pdf (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Melton, GB, Petrila, J, Poythress, NG, et al. Psychological Evaluations for the Courts: A Handbook for Mental Health Professionals and Lawyers, 4th edn. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2018.Google Scholar

Winick, BJ. Incompetency to stand trial: developments in the law. In: Monahan, J, Steadman, HJ, eds. Mentally Disordered Offenders. New York, NY: Plenum Press; 1983: 3–38.Google Scholar

Murrie, DC, Zelle, H. Criminal competencies. In: Cutler, BL, Zapf, PA, eds. APA Handbook of Forensic Psychology, Vol. 1: Individual and Situational Influences in Criminal and Civil Contexts. APA Handbooks in Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2015: 115–157.Google Scholar

Morris, DR, DeYoung, NJ. Psycholegal abilities and restoration of competence to stand trial. Behav Sci Law. 2012; 30(6): 710–728.Google Scholar

Pirelli, G, Gottdiener, WH, Zapf, PA. A meta-analytic review of competency to stand trial research. Psychol Public Policy Law. 2011; 17(1): 1–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hoge, SK, Bonnie, RJ, Poythress, N, et al. The MacArthur adjudicative competence study: development and validation of a research instrument. Law Hum Behav. 1997; 21(2): 141–179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Bonnie, RJ, Grisso, T. Adjudicative competence & youthful offenders. In: Grisso, T, Schwartz, RG, eds. Youth on Trial: A Developmental Perspective on Juvenile Justice; Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press; 2000: 73–103. See NCJ-184852.Google Scholar

Dusky v. United States, 362 U.S. 402 (1960).Google Scholar

Mossman, D, Noffsinger, SG, Ash, P, et al. AAPL practice guideline for the forensic psychiatric evaluation of competence to stand trial. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2007; 35(4 Suppl): S3–S72.Google Scholar

Wall, BW, Ash, P, Keram, E, Pinals, DA, Thompson, CH. AAPL practice resource for the forensic psychiatric evaluation of competence to stand trial. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2018; 46(3): 373.Google Scholar

Zapf, PA, Roesch, R. Evaluation of Competence to Stand Trial. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2009.Google Scholar

Pate v. Robinson, 383 U.S. 375 (1966).Google Scholar

Drope v. Missouri, 420 U.S. 162 (1975).Google Scholar

Zapf, PA, Hubbard, KL, Cooper, VG, Wheeles, MC, Ronan, KA. Have the courts abdicated their responsibility for determination of competency to stand trial to clinicians? J Forensic Psychol Pract. 2004; 4(1): 27–44.Google Scholar

Gowensmith, WN, Frost, LE, Speelman, DW, Therson, DE. Lookin’ for beds in all the wrong places: outpatient competency restoration as a promising approach to modern challenges. Psychol Public Policy Law. 2016; 22(3): 293–305.Google Scholar

Pirelli, G, Zapf, PA. A meta-analysis of the competency restoration literature. Paper presented at: 2015 Annual Meeting of the American Psychology-Law Society 2015, San Diego, CA.Google Scholar

Zapf, PA. Standardizing Protocols for Treatment to Restore Competency to Stand Trial: Interventions and Clinically Appropriate Time Periods. Olympia, WA: Washington State Institute for Public Policy; 2013.Google Scholar

Hoge, SK, Bonnie, RJ, Poythress, N, Monahan, J. Attorney-client decision-making in criminal cases: client competence and participation as perceived by their attorneys. Behav Sci Law. 1992; 10(3): 385–394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ryba, N, Zapf, P. The influence of psychiatric symptoms and cognitive abilities on competence-related abilities. Int J Forensic Ment Health. 2011; 10(1): 29–40.Google Scholar

Roesch, R, Golding, SL. Competency to Stand Trial. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press; 1980.Google Scholar

Warren, JI, Fitch, WL, Dietz, PE, Rosenfeld, BD. Criminal offense, psychiatric diagnosis, and psycholegal opinion: an analysis of 894 pretrial referrals. Bull Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 1991; 19(1): 63–69.Google Scholar

Nicholson, RA, Kugler, KE. Competent and incompetent criminal defendants: a quantitative review of comparative research. Psychol Bull. 1991; 109(3): 355–370.Google Scholar

Hart, SD, Hare, RD. Predicting fitness to stand trial: the relative power of demographic, criminal, and clinical variables. Forensic Rep. 1992; 5(1): 53–65.Google Scholar

Cooper, VG, Zapf, PA. Predictor variables in competency to stand trial decisions. Law Hum Behav. 2003; 27(4): 423–436.Google Scholar

James, DV, Duffield, G, Blizard, R, Hamilton, LW. Fitness to plead: a prospective study of the inter-relationships between expert opinion, legal criteria and specific symptomatology. Psychol Med. 2001; 31(1): 139–150.Google Scholar

Viljoen, JL, Zapf, PA. Fitness to stand trial evaluations: a comparison of referred and non-referred defendants. Int J Forensic Ment Health. 2002; 1(2): 127–138.Google Scholar

Miller, RD, Germain, EJ. Evaluation of competency to stand trial in defendants who do not want to be defended against the crimes charged. Bull Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 1987; 15(4): 371–379.Google Scholar

Winick, BJ. Reforming incompetency to stand trial and plead guilty: a restated proposal and response to Professor Bonnie. J Crim Law Criminol. 1995; 85(3): 571–624.Google Scholar

Smith, SA, Broughton, SF. Competency to stand trial and criminal responsibility: an analysis in South Carolina. Ment Retard. 1994; 32(4): 281–287.Google Scholar

Cooper, DK, Grisso, T. Five year research update (1991–1995): evaluations for competence to stand trial. Behav Sci Law. 1997; 15(3): 347–364.Google Scholar

Appelbaum, KL. Assessment of criminal-justice-related competencies in defendants with mental retardation. J Psychiatry Law. 1994; 22(3): 311–327.Google Scholar

Edgerton, RB. The Cloak of Competence: Stigma in the Lives of the Mentally Retarded. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press; 1967.Google Scholar

Bonnie, RJ. The competence of criminal defendants: a theoretical reformulation. Behav Sci Law. 1992; 10(3): 291–316.Google Scholar

Smith, SA, Hudson, RL. A quick screening test of competency to stand trial for defendants with mental retardation. Psychol Rep. 1995; 76(1): 91–97.Google Scholar

Kalbeitzer, R, Benedetti, R. Assessment of competency to stand trial in individuals with mental retardation. J Forensic Psychol Pract. 2009; 9(3): 237–248.Google Scholar

Schlesinger, LB. A case study involving competency to stand trial: incompetent defendant, incompetent examiner or “malingering by proxy”? Psychol Public Policy Law. 2003; 9(3–4): 381–399.Google Scholar

Stoops, R, Hess, J, Scott, T, et al. Training competency to stand trial in an individual with intellectual disability and behavioral health concerns. Mental Health Aspects Dev Disabil. 2007; 10(2): 47–52.Google Scholar

Anderson, SD, Hewitt, J. The effect of competency restoration training on defendants with mental retardation found not competent to proceed. Law Hum Behav. 2002; 26(3): 343–351.Google Scholar

Schouten, R. Commentary: training for competence—form or substance? J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2003; 31(2): 202–204.Google Scholar

Everington, C, Notario-Smull, H, Horton, ML. Can defendants with mental retardation successfully fake their performance on a test of competence to stand trial? Behav Sci Law. 2007; 25(4): 545–560.Google Scholar

Cowden, VL, McKee, GR. Competency to stand trial in juvenile delinquency proceedings – cognitive maturity and the attorney-client relationship. Univ Louisv J Fam Law. 1995; 33: 629–660.Google Scholar

Baerger, DR, Griffin, EF, Lyons, JS, Simmons, R. Competency to stand trial in preadjudicated and petitioned juvenile defendants. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2003; 31(3): 314–320.Google Scholar

Kruh, IP, Sullivan, L, Ellis, M, Lexcen, F, Mcclellan, J. Juvenile competence to stand trial: a historical and empirical analysis of a juvenile forensic evaluation service. Int J Forensic Ment Health. 2006; 5(2): 109–123.Google Scholar

Redlich, AD, Silverman, M, Steiner, H. Pre-adjudicative and adjudicative competence in juveniles and young adults. Behav Sci Law. 2003; 21(3): 393–410.Google Scholar

Poythress, N, Lexcen, FJ, Grisso, T, Steinberg, L. The competence-related abilities of adolescent defendants in criminal court. Law Hum Behav. 2006; 30(1): 75–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Schmidt, MG, Reppucci, ND, Woolard, JL. Effectiveness of participation as a defendant: the attorney–juvenile client relationship. Behav Sci Law. 2003; 21(2): 175–198.Google Scholar

Salekin, RT, Rogers, R, Ustad, KL. Juvenile waiver to adult criminal courts: prototypes for dangerousness, sophistication-maturity, and amenability to treatment. Psychol Public Policy Law. 2001; 7(2): 381–408.Google Scholar

Grisso, T. Competence of adolescents as trial defendants. Psychol Public Policy Law. 1997; 3(1): 3–32.Google Scholar

Grisso, T. What we know about youths’ capacities as trial defendants. In: Grisso, T, Schwartz, RG, eds. Youth on Trial: A Developmental Perspective on Juvenile Justice. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press; 2000: 139–171.Google Scholar

Katner, DR. The mental health paradigm and the MacArthur study: emerging issues challenging the competence of juveniles in delinquency systems. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2006; 32(4): 503–583.Google Scholar

Larson, K, Grisso, T. Transfer and commitment of youth in the United States: law, policy, and forensic practice. In: APA Handbook of Psychology and Juvenile Justice. APA Handbooks in Psychology Series. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2016: 445–466.Google Scholar

Viljoen, JL, Wingrove, T, Ryba, NL. Adjudicative competence evaluations of juvenile and adult defendants: judges’ views regarding essential components of competence reports. Int J Forensic Ment Health. 2008; 7(2): 107–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Barnum, R. Clinical and forensic evaluation of competence to stand trial in juvenile defendants. In:Grisso, T, Schwartz, RG, eds. Youth on Trial: A Developmental Perspective on Juvenile Justice. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press; 2000: 193–223. See NCJ-184852.Google Scholar

Grisso, T. Forensic Evaluation of Juveniles, 2nd edn. Sarasota, FL: Professional Resource Press/Professional Resource Exchange; 2013.Google Scholar

Grisso, T, Schwartz, RG. Youth on Trial: A Developmental Perspective on Juvenile Justice. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press; 2000.Google Scholar

Riley, SE. Competency to stand trial adjudication: a comparison of female and male defendants. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 1998; 26(2): 223–240.Google Scholar

Crocker, AG, Favreau, OE, Caulet, M. Gender and fitness to stand trial: a 5-year review of remands in Québec. Int J Law Psychiatry. 2002; 25(1): 67–84.Google Scholar

Kois, L, Pearson, J, Chauhan, P, Goni, M, Saraydarian, L. Competency to stand trial among female inpatients. Law Hum Behav. 2013; 37(4): 231–240.Google Scholar

Frierson, RL, Shea, SJ, Shea, MEC. Competence-to-stand-trial evaluations of geriatric defendants. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2002; 30(2): 252–256.Google Scholar

Lewis, CF, Fields, C, Rainey, E. A study of geriatric forensic evaluees: who are the violent elderly? J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2006; 34(3): 324–332.Google ScholarPubMed

Fogel, MH, Schiffman, W, Mumley, D, Tillbrook, C, Grisso, T. Ten year research update (2001–2010): evaluations for competence to stand trial (adjudicative competence). Behav Sci Law. 2013; 31(2): 165–191.Google Scholar

Frierson, RL, Shea, SJ, Shea, MEC. Competence-to-stand-trial evaluations of geriatric defendants. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2002; 30(2): 252–256.Google Scholar

LaFortune, KA, Nicholson, RA. How adequate are Oklahoma’s mental health evaluations for determining competency in criminal proceedings?: the bench and the bar respond. J Psychiatry Law. 1995; 23(2): 231–262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Winick, BJ. Incompetency to proceed in the criminal process: past, present, and future. In: Sales, BD, Shuman, DW, eds. Law, Mental Health, and Mental Disorder. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole Publishing Co; 1996: 310–340.Google Scholar

Godinez v. Moran, 509 U.S. 389 (1993).Google Scholar

Grisso, T, Cocozza, JJ, Steadman, HJ, Fisher, WH, Greer, A. The organization of pretrial forensic evaluation services: a national profile. Law Hum Behav. 1994; 18: 377–393.Google Scholar

Zapf, PA, Roesch, R, Pirelli, G. Assessing competency to stand trial. In: Weiner, IB, Otto, RK, eds. The Handbook of Forensic Psychology, 4th edn. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc; 2014: 281–314.Google Scholar

Christy, A, Otto, R, Finch, J, Ringhoff, D, Kimonis, ER. Factors affecting jail detention of defendants adjudicated incompetent to proceed. Behav Sci Law. 2010; 28(5): 707–716.Google Scholar

Callahan, L, Dargis, M, Ihara, E, Irons, A. Foundation Work for Exploring Incompetency to Stand Trial (IST) Evaluations & Competency Restoration for People with Serious Mental Illness (SMI). Delmar, NY: Policy Research Associates; 2018.Google Scholar

Warren, JI, Chauhan, P, Kois, L, Dibble, A, Knighton, J. Factors influencing 2,260 opinions of defendants’ restorability to adjudicative competency. Psychol Public Policy Law. 2013; 19(4): 498–508.Google Scholar

Geller, JL, Fisher, WH, Kaye, NS. Effect of evaluations of competency to stand trial on the state hospital in an era of increased community services. Hosp Community Psychiatry. 1991; 42(8): 818–823.Google Scholar

Aubrey, M. Characteristics of competency referral defendants and nonreferred criminal defendants. J Psychiatry Law. 1988; 16(2): 233–245.Google Scholar

Arvanites, TM. A comparison of civil patients and incompetent defendants: pre and post deinstitutionalization. Bull Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 1990; 18(4): 393–403.Google ScholarPubMed

Steury, EH, Choinski, M, Steury, SR. Incompetency to stand trial and mental health treatment: a case study testing the subversion hypothesis. Bull Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 1996; 24(3): 319–331.Google Scholar

Warren, JI, Rosenfeld, B, Fitch, WL, Hawk, G. Forensic mental health clinical evaluation: an analysis of interstate and intersystemic differences. Law Hum Behav. 1997; 21(4): 377–390.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Gowensmith, WN, Murrie, DM, Packer, IK. Report in Response to the Trueblood v. State of Washington’s Department of Social and Health Services. Olympia, WA: Office of Attorney General, State of Washington; 2015.Google Scholar

Skeem, JL, Cohn, NB, Berge, G, Golding, SL. Logic and reliability of evaluations of competence to stand trial. Law Hum Behav. 1998; 22(5): 519–547.Google Scholar

Nicholson, RA, Norwood, S. The quality of forensic psychological assessments, reports, and testimony: acknowledging the gap between promise and practice. Law Hum Behav. 2000; 24(1): 9–44.Google Scholar

Grisso, T. Evaluating Competencies: Forensic Assessments and Instruments, 2nd edn. New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers; 2002.Google Scholar

Otto, RK, Poythress, NG, Nicholson, RA. Psychometric properties of the MacArthur competence assessment tool – criminal adjudication. Psychol Assess. 1998; 10(4): 435–443.Google Scholar

Rogers, R, Johansson-Love, J. Evaluating competency to stand trial with evidence-based practice. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2009; 37(4): 450–460.Google Scholar

Viljoen, JL, Roesch, R, Zapf, PA. Interrater reliability of the fitness interview test across 4 professional groups. Can J Psychiatry. 2002; 47(10): 945–952.Google Scholar

Murrie, DC, Boccaccini, MT, Johnson, JT, Janke, C. Does interrater (dis)agreement on psychopathy checklist scores in sexually violent predator trials suggest partisan allegiance in forensic evaluations? Law Hum Behav. 2008; 32(4): 352–362.Google Scholar

Murrie, DC, Boccaccini, MT, Zapf, PA, Warren, JI, Henderson, CE. Clinician variation in findings of competence to stand trial. Psychol Public Policy Law. 2008; 14(3): 177–193.Google Scholar

Rosenfeld, B, Ritchie, K. Competence to stand trial: clinician reliability and the role of offense severity. J Forensic Sci. 1998; 43(1): 151–157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Mossman, D. Conceptualizing and characterizing accuracy in assessments of competence to stand trial. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2008; 36(3): 340–351.Google Scholar

Gowensmith, WN, Murrie, DC, Boccaccini, MT. Field reliability of competence to stand trial opinions: how often do evaluators agree, and what do judges decide when evaluators disagree? Law Hum Behav. 2012; 36(2): 130–139.Google Scholar

Guarnera, LA, Murrie, DC. Field reliability of competency and sanity opinions: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychol Assess. 2017; 29(6): 795–818.Google Scholar

Dror, IE, Murrie, DC. A hierarchy of expert performance applied to forensic psychological assessments. Psychol Public Policy Law. 2018; 24(1): 11–23.Google Scholar

Neal, TMS, Brodsky, SL. Forensic psychologists’ perceptions of bias and potential correction strategies in forensic mental health evaluations. Psychol Public Policy Law. 2016; 22(1): 58–76.Google Scholar

Zapf, PA, Dror, IE. Understanding and mitigating bias in forensic evaluation: lessons from forensic science. Int J Forensic Ment Health. 2017; 16(3): 227–238.Google Scholar

Beltrani, A, Reed, AL, Zapf, PA, Otto, RK. Is hindsight really 20/20?: the impact of outcome information on the decision-making process. Int J Forensic Ment Health. 2018; 17(3): 285–296.Google Scholar

Zappala, M, Reed, AL, Beltrani, A, Zapf, PA, Otto, RK. Anything you can do, I can do better: bias awareness in forensic evaluators. J Forensic Psychol Res Pract. 2018; 18(1): 45–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Zapf, PA, Kukucka, J, Kassin, SM, Dror, IE. Cognitive bias in forensic mental health assessment: evaluator beliefs about its nature and scope. Psychol Public Policy Law. 2018; 24(1): 1–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Pronin, E, Lin, DY, Ross, L. The bias blind spot: perceptions of bias in self versus others. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2002; 28(3): 369–381.Google Scholar

Mossman, D. When forensic examiners disagree: bias, or just inaccuracy? Psychol Public Policy Law. 2013; 19(1): 40–55.Google Scholar

Murrie, DC, Boccaccini, MT, Guarnera, LA, Rufino, KA. Are forensic experts biased by the side that retained them? Psychol Sci. 2013; 24(10): 1889–1897.Google Scholar

Murrie, DC, Boccaccini, MT, Turner, DB, et al. Rater (dis)agreement on risk assessment measures in sexually violent predator proceedings: evidence of adversarial allegiance in forensic evaluation? Psychol Public Policy Law. 2009; 15(1): 19–53.Google Scholar

Zapf, PA, Roesch, R. Future directions in the restoration of competency to stand trial. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2011; 20(1): 43–47.Google Scholar

Ladds, B, Convit, A. Involuntary medication of patients who are incompetent to stand trial: a review of empirical studies. Bull Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 1994; 22(4): 519–532.Google Scholar

Sell v. United States, 282 F. 3d 560 (2003).Google Scholar

Siegel, AM, Elwork, A. Treating incompetence to stand trial. Law Hum Behav. 1990; 14(1): 57–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bertman, LJ, Thompson, JW Jr., Waters, WF, et al. Effect of an individualized treatment protocol on restoration of competency in pretrial forensic inpatients. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2003; 31(1): 27–35.Google ScholarPubMed

Brown, DR. A didactic group program for persons found unfit to stand trial. Hosp Community Psychiatry. 1992; 43(7): 732–733.Google Scholar

Noffsinger, SG. Restoration to competency practice guidelines. Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol. 2001; 45(3): 356.Google Scholar

Jackson v. Indiana, 406 U.S. 715 (1972).Google Scholar

Golding, SL. Studies of incompetent defendants: research and social policy implications. Forensic Rep. 1992; 5(1): 77–83.Google Scholar

Salekin, K, Olley, JG, Hedge, K. Offenders with intellectual disability: characteristics, prevalence, and issues in forensic assessment. J Ment Health Res Intellect Disabil. 2010; 3(2): 97–116.Google Scholar

Scott, CL. Commentary: a road map for research in restoration of competency to stand trial. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2003; 31(1): 36–43.Google ScholarPubMed

Cochrane, RE, Grisso, T, Frederick, RI. The relationship between criminal charges, diagnoses, and psycholegal opinions among federal pretrial defendants. Behav Sci Law. 2001; 19(4): 565–582.Google Scholar

Colwell, LH, Gianesini, J. Demographic, criminogenic, and psychiatric factors that predict competency restoration. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2011; 39(3): 297–306.Google Scholar

Warren, JI, Murrie, DC, Stejskal, W, et al. Opinion formation in evaluating the adjudicative competence and restorability of criminal defendants: a review of 8,000 evaluations. Behav Sci Law. 2006; 24(2): 113–132.Google Scholar

Hubbard, KL, Zapf, PA. The role of demographic, criminal, and psychiatric variables in examiners’ predictions of restorability to competency to stand trial. Int J Forensic Ment Health. 2003; 2(2): 145–155.Google Scholar

Kapoor, R. Commentary: jail-based competency restoration. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2011; 39(3): 311–315.Google Scholar

Gowensmith, WN. Resolution or resignation: the role of forensic mental health professionals amidst the competency services crisis. Psychol Public Policy Law. 2019; 25(1): 1–14.Google Scholar

Pew Center on the States. State of Recidivism: The Revolving Door of America’s Prisons. Washington, DC: The Pew Charitable Trusts; 2011.Google Scholar

Statistics Denmark. Recidivism. 2018. www.dst.dk/en/Statistik/emner/levevilkaar/kriminalitet/tilbagefald-til-kriminalitet (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Ministry of Justice. Proven reoffending statistics: January 2016 to March 2016. 2018. www.gov.uk/government/statistics/proven-reoffending-statistics-january-2016-to-march-2016 (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Visher, CA, Winterfield, L, Coggeshall, MB. Ex-offender employment programs and recidivism: a meta-analysis. J Exp Criminol. 2005; 1(3): 295–316.Google Scholar

Landenberger, NA, Lipsey, MW. The positive effects of cognitive behavioral programs for offenders: a meta-analysis of factors associated with effective treatment. J Exp Criminol. 2005; 1(4): 451–476.Google Scholar

Bonta, J, Andrews, DA. Risk-need-responsivity model for offender assessment and rehabilitation. Public Safety Canada; 2007. www.courtinnovation.org/sites/default/files/RNRModelForOffenderAssessmentAndRehabilitation.pdf (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Hanson, RK. Long-term recidivism studies show that desistance is the norm. Crim Justice Behav. 2018; 45(9): 1340–1346.Google Scholar

Clarke, MC, Peterson-Badali, M, Skilling, TA. The relationship between changes in dynamic risk factors and the predictive validity of risk assessments among youth offenders. Crim Justice Behav. 2017; 44(10): 1340–1355.Google Scholar

Central Statistics Office. Probation recidivism 2010 cohort. Central Statistics Office Ireland; 2016. www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/er/pror/probationrecidivism2010cohort/ (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Swedish National Council for Crime Prevention. Recidivism. www.bra.se/bra-in-english/home/crime-and-statistics/crime-statistics/recidivism.html (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Lurigio, AJ, Cho, YI, Swartz, JA, et al. Standardized assessment of substance-related, other psychiatric, and comorbid disorders among probationers. Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol. 2003; 47: 630–652.Google Scholar

Olver, ME, Stockdale, KC, Wormith, JS.Thirty years of research on the Level of Service scales: a meta-analytic examination of predictive accuracy and sources of variability. Psychol Assess. 2014; 26(1): 156–176.Google Scholar

Gendreau, P, Little, T, Goggin, C. A meta-analysis of the predictors of adult offender recidivism: what works? Criminology. 1996; 34: 575–608.Google Scholar

Hanson, RK, Morton-Bourgon, KE. The characteristics of persistent sexual offenders: a meta-analysis of recidivism studies. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2005; 73(6): 1154–1163.Google Scholar

Bonta, J, Blais, J, Wilson, HA. A theoretically informed meta-analysis of the risk for general and violent recidivism for mentally disordered offenders. Aggress Violent Behav. 2014; 19(3): 278–287.Google Scholar

Shamseer, D, Moher, D, Clarke, M, et al. Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015: elaboration and explanation. Br Med J. 2015; 350: g7647.Google Scholar

Rosenthal, R, DiMatteo, MR. Meta-analysis: recent developments in quantitative methods for literature review. Annu Rev Psychol. 2001; 52: 59–82.Google Scholar

Wells, GA, Shea, B, O’Connell, D, et al. Quality assessment scales for observational studies. 2004. www.ohri.ca/programs/clinical_epidemiology/oxford.asp (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

StataCorp. Stata Statistical Software: Release 15. College Station, TX: StataCorp LLC; 2017.Google Scholar

Boston College Department of Economics, Fisher, D. ADMETAN: Stata module to provide comprehensive meta-analysis. Statistical Software Components S458561. 2018.Google Scholar

Adams, S, Bostwick, L, Campbell, R. Examining Illinois Probationer Characteristics and Outcomes. Chicago, IL: Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority; 2011.Google Scholar

Caudy, MS, Tillyer, MS, Tillyer, R. Jail versus probation: a gender-specific test of differential effectiveness and moderators of sanction effects. Crim Justice Behav. 2018; 45(7): 949–968.Google Scholar

Department of Justice. Adult reconviction in Northern Ireland 2005. Northern Ireland, Belfast: Statistics and Research Branch, Department of Justice; 2011.Google Scholar

Grann, M, Danesh, J, Fazel, S. The association between psychiatric diagnosis and violent re-offending in adult offenders in the community. BMC Psychiatry. 2008; 8: 92.Google Scholar

Harris, P. The first-time adult-onset offender: findings from a community corrections cohort. Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol. 2011; 55(6): 949–981.Google Scholar

Huebner, BM, Cobbina, J. The effect of drug use, drug treatment participation, and treatment completion on probationer recidivism. J Drug Issues. 2007; 37(3): 619–641.Google Scholar

Humphrey, JA, Burford, G, Dye, MH. A longitudinal analysis of reparative probation and recidivism. Criminal Justice Studies. 2012; 25(2): 117–130.Google Scholar

Maliek, NA. An Empirical Assessment of the Direct and Indirect Effects of Mental Health Disorders on Probation Outcomes (Thesis). The University of Texas at San Antonio: ProQuest Dissertations Publishing; 2017: 10617596.Google Scholar

Minor, KI, Wells, JB, Sims, C. Recidivism among federal probationers: predicting sentence violations. Fed Probat. 2003; 67(1): 31–33.Google Scholar

North Carolina Sentencing & Advisory Commission. Correctional program evaluation: offenders placed on probation or released from prison in Fiscal Year 2015. 2018. www.nccourts.gov/assets/documents/publications/recidivism_2018.pdf?4VQBsstuyz U5dH1Ap7SJQiMe0zTKYU1G (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Olson, DE, Lurigio, AJ. Predicting probation outcomes: factors associated with probation rearrest, revocations, and technical violations during supervision. Justice Res Policy. 2000; 2(1): 73–86.Google Scholar

Olson, DE, Alderden, M, Lurigio, AJ. Men are from Mars, women are from Venus: but what role does gender play in probationer recidivism? Justice Res Policy. 2003; 5(2): 33–54.Google Scholar

Peillard, AMM, Correa, NM, Cháhuan, GW, Lacoa, JF. La Reincidencia en el Sistema Penitenciario Chileno. Santiago, Chile: Fundacion Paz Ciudadana; 2012.Google Scholar

Sims, B, Jones, M. Predicting success or failure on probation: factors associated with felony probation outcomes. Crime Delinq. 1997; 43(3): 314–327.Google Scholar

Wood, M, Cattel, J, Hales, G, et al. Re-offending by Offenders on Community Orders: Results from the Offender Management Community Cohort Study. London, England: Ministry of Justice Analytical Series; 2015.Google Scholar

Fazel, S, Chang, Z, Fanshawe, T, et al. Prediction of violent reoffending on release from prison: derivation and external validation of a scalable tool. Lancet Psychiatry. 2016; 3(6): 535–543.Google Scholar

Stahler, GJ, Mennis, J, Belenko, S, et al. Predicting recidivism for released state prison offenders: examining the influence of individual and neighborhood characteristics and spatial contagion on the likelihood of reincarceration. Crim Justice Behav. 2013; 40(6): 690–711.Google Scholar

Ersche, KD, Turton, AJ, Chamberlain, SR, et al. Cognitive dysfunction and anxious-impulsive personality traits are endophenotypes for drug dependence. Am J Psychiatry. 2012; 169(9): 926–936.Google Scholar

Arseneault, L, Moffit, TE, Caspi, A. Mental disorders and violence in a total birth cohort: results from the Dunedin study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000; 57(10): 979–986.Google Scholar

Sinha, R. Chronic stress, drug use, and vulnerability to addiction. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2008; 1141: 105–130.Google Scholar

Hendricks, PS, Crawford, MS, Cropsey, KL, et al. The relationships of classic psychedelic use with criminal behavior in the United States adult population. J Psychopharmacol. 2018; 32(1): 37–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Chang, Z, Larsson, H, Lichtenstein, P, et al. Psychiatric disorders and violent reoffending: a national cohort study of convicted prisoners in Sweden. Lancet Psychiatry. 2015; 2(10): 891–900.Google Scholar

Oram, S, Trevillion, K, Khalifeh, H, et al. Systematic review and metaanalysis of psychiatric disorder and the perpetration of partner violence. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 2014; 23(4): 361–376.Google Scholar

Fazel, S, Gulati, G, Linsell, L, et al. Schizophrenia and violence: systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med. 2009; 6(8): e1000120.Google Scholar

Fitton, L, Yu, R, Fazel, S. Childhood maltreatment and violent outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Trauma Violence Abuse. 2018; epub ahead of print: 1524838018795269. doi:10.1177/1524838018795269.Google Scholar

Fazel, S, Wolf, A, Yukhnenko, D. Recidivism reporting checklist. Open Sci Framework. 2019. doi:10.17605/OSF.IO/QVTFB.Google Scholar

Meyer, IH, Flores, AR, Stemple, L, et al. Incarceration rates and traits of sexual minorities in the United States: national inmate survey, 2011–2012. Am J Public Health. 2017; 107(2): 267–273.Google Scholar

Center for American Progress, Movement Advancement Project. Unjust: how the broken criminal justice system fails LGBT people. Washington, DC 2016.Google Scholar

Mereish, EH, Poteat, VP. A relational model of sexual minority mental and physical health: the negative effects of shame on relationships, loneliness, and health. J Couns Psychol. 2015; 62(3): 425437.Google Scholar

Valentine, SE, Shipherd, JC. A systematic review of social stress and mental health among transgender and gender non-conforming people in the United States. Clin Psychol Rev. 2018; 66: 24–38.Google Scholar

Meyer, IH. Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychol Bull. 2003; 129(5): 674–697.Google Scholar

Kidd, SA, Howison, M, Pilling, M, et al. Severe mental illness in LGBT populations: a scoping review. Psychiatr Serv. 2016; 67(7): 779–783.Google Scholar

Pandya, A. Mental health as an advocacy priority in the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender communities. J Psychiatr Pract. 2014; 20(3): 225–227.Google Scholar

National Center for Transgender Equality. Policies to Increase Safety and Respect for Transgender Prisoners: A Guide for Agencies and Advocates. Washington, DC 2018.Google Scholar

Beck, AJ, Berzofsky, M, Caspar, R, et al. Sexual Victimization in Prisons and Jails Reported By Inmates, 2011–12-Update (Bureau of Justice Statistics NCJ 241399). Washington, DC 2014.Google Scholar

National Center for Transgender Equality. LGBT People and the Prison Rape Elimination Act. Washington, DC 2012.Google Scholar

United States Department of Justice. Prison Rape Elimination Act (PREA) of 2003 (P.L. 108–79).Google Scholar

Badgett, MVL, Goldberg, N, Conron, KJ, Gates, GJ. Best practices for asking questions about sexual orientation on surveys. The Williams Institute Sexual Minority Assessment Research Team; 2009. (http://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/SMART-FINAL-Nov-2009.pdf).Google Scholar

The National PREA Resource Center. www.prearesourcecenter.org (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Beck, AJ. Use of Restrictive Housing in US Prisons and Jails, 2011–12 (Bureau of Justice Statistics NCJ249209). Washington, DC 2015.Google Scholar

Coleman, E, Bockting, W, Botzer, M, et al. Standards of care for the health of transsexual, transgender, and gender-nonconforming people, version 7. Int J Transgenderism. 2012; 13(4): 165–232.Google Scholar

Smith, BV, Yarussi, JM. Policy Review and Development Guide: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Intersex Persons in Custodial Settings, 2nd edn. United States Department of Justice, National Institute of Corrections; 2015.Google Scholar

The Joint Commission. Advancing Effective Communication, Cultural Competence, and Patient- and Family-Centered Care for the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) Community: A Field Guide. Oak Brook, IL 2011.Google Scholar

National Association of State Mental Health Program Directors. Assessment #10: forensic patients in state psychiatric hospitals: 1999–2016. 2017. https://nasmhpd.org/sites/default/files/TACPaper.10.Forensic-Patients-in-State-Hospitals_508C_v2.pdf (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

California Department of State Hospitals. 2017 annual report. www.dsh.ca.gov/publications/docs/ADA2017AnnualRept.pdf (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Weiner, J. Breakdown: mental health. 2019. https://calmatters.org/articles/california-mental-health-treatment-in-prisons/ (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Dusky v. United States, 362 U.S. 402 (1960).Google Scholar

Wall, BW, Ash, P, Keram, E, Pinals, DA, Thompson, CR. AAPL Practice resource: evaluation of competence to stand trial. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law; 2018. http://jaapl.org/content/jaapl/46/3_Supplement/S4.full.pdf (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Gowensmith, WN, Frost, LE, Speelman, DW, Therson, DE. Lookin’ for beds in all the wrong places: outpatient competency restoration as a promising approach to modern challenges. Psychol Public Policy Law. 2016; 22(3): 293–305.Google Scholar

Trueblood, , et al. v. Washington State Department of Social and Health Services, 101 F. Supp. 3d 1010 (W.D. Wash. 2015). https://docs.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/washington/wawdce/2:2014cv01178/202545/131 (accessed February 17, 2019).Google Scholar

Stiavetti, , et al. v. Ahlin, et al. Superior Court of California, County of Alameda (2016), Case No. RG15779731, [Tentative] Order Granting In Part Petition for Writ of Mandate (03/15/2019).Google Scholar

Warburton, K, McDermott, BE, Gale, A, Stahl, SM. A survey of national trends in psychiatric patients found incompetent to stand trial: reasons for the re-institutionalization of people with serious mental illness in the United States. CNS Spectr. 2020; 25(2): 245–251.Google Scholar

Wik, A. Alternatives to inpatient competency restoration programs: jail-based competency restoration programs. 2018. www.nri-inc.org/media/1500/jbcr_website-format_oct2018.pdf (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Jennings, JL, Bell, JD. The “ROC” model: psychiatric evaluation, stabilization and restoration of competency in a jail setting. 2012. https://doi.org/10.5772/30040 (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Cal. Pen. Code §1369 (2015).Google Scholar

Department of State Hospitals JBCT Metrics Summary for 2018. Received February 8, 2019.Google Scholar

Carbonell, JL, Heilbrun, K, Friedman, FL. Predicting who will regain trial competency: initial promise unfulfilled. Forensic Rep. 1992; 5(1): 67–76.Google Scholar

Golding, SL. Studies of incompetent defendants: research and social policy implications. Forensic Rep. 1992; 5(1): 77–83.Google Scholar

Mossman, D. Predicting restorability of incompetent criminal defendants. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law 2007; 35(1): 34–43.Google Scholar

Morris, DR, Parker, GF. Jackson’s Indiana: state hospital competence restoration in Indiana. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2009; 36(4): 522–534.Google Scholar

Morris, DR, Deyoung, NJ. Long-term competence restoration. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2014; 42(1): 81–90.Google Scholar

Colwell, LH, Gianesini, J. Demographic, criminogenic, and psychiatric factors that predict competency restoration. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2011; 39: 297–306.Google Scholar

Galin, K, Wallerstein, L, Miller, R. Restoring Individuals Safely and Effectively (RISE): Colorado’s jail-based competency restoration program. Presentation to NAMI national convention; 2016. www.nami.org/getattachment/Get-Involved/NAMI-National-Convention/2015-Convention-Presentation-Slides-and-Resources/A-7-Restoring-Individuals-Safely-and-Effectively-(RISE).pdf (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Sell v. United States, 539 U.S. 166 (2003).Google Scholar

Washington v. Harper, 494 U.S. 210 (1990).Google Scholar

Cal. Pen. Code §1369 (2009).Google Scholar

Cal. Pen. Code §1370 (a)(2)(B)(ii)(III) (2018).Google Scholar

Zapf, P. Standardizing Protocols for Treatment to Restore Competency to Stand Trial: Interventions and Clinically Appropriate Time Periods (Document No. 13–01-1901). Olympia, WA: Washington State Institute for Public Policy; 2013.Google Scholar

Texas Administrative Code, Title 25, Part 1, Chapter 416, Subchapter C, Rule §416.80. https://texreg.sos.state.tx.us/ (accessed February 18, 2019).Google Scholar

Texas Administrative Code, Title 25, Part 1, Chapter 416, Subchapter C, Rule §416.78. https://texreg.sos.state.tx.us/ (accessed February 18, 2019).Google Scholar

Texas Health and Human Services. Jail-Based Competency Restoration Pilot Program Third Quarter Report for Fiscal Year 2017. https://hhs.texas.gov/reports/2017/06/jail-based-competency-restoration-pilot-program-third-quarter-report-fiscal-year-2017 (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Kapoor, R. Commentary: jail-based competency restoration. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2011; 39(3): 297–306.Google Scholar

Texas Administrative Code, Title 25, Part 1, Chapter 416, Subchapter C, Rule §416.89. https://texreg.sos.state.tx.us/ (accessed February 18, 2019).Google Scholar

Danzer, GS, Wheeler, EMA, Alexander, AA, Wasser, TD. Competency restoration for adult defendants in different treatment environments. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2019; 47(1): 68–81.Google Scholar

Mullen, PE, James, DV, Meloy, JR, et al. The fixated and the pursuit of public figures. J Forens Psychiatry Psychol. 2009; 20(1): 33–47.Google Scholar

The Fixated Research Group: Inappropriate communications, approaches, and attacks on the British Royal Family with additional consideration of attacks on politicians. London: The Home Office; 2006.Google Scholar

James, DV, Meloy, JR, Mullen, PE, et al. Abnormal attentions toward the British Royal Family: factors associated with approach and escalation. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2010; 38(3): 329–340.Google Scholar

James, DV, Kerrigan, TR, Forfar, R, Farnham, FR, Preston, LF. The fixated threat assessment centre: preventing harm and facilitating care. J Forens Psychiatry Psychol. 2010; 21(4): 521–536.Google Scholar

Scalora, MJ, Baumgartner, JV, Zimmerman, WJ, et al. An epidemiological assessment of problematic contacts to members of congress. J Forensic Sci. 2002; 47(6): 1360–1364.Google Scholar

James, DV, Farnham, FR, Wilson, SP. The fixated threat assessment centre. In: Meloy, JR, Hoffmann, J, eds. International Handbook of Threat Assessment. New York: Oxford University Press; 2013: 299.Google Scholar

James, DV, Farnham, FR. Outcome and efficacy of interventions by a public figure threat assessment and management unit: a mirrored study of concerning behaviors and police contacts before and after intervention. Behav Sci Law. 2016; 34(5): 660–680.Google Scholar

Mullen, PE, Pathé, M, Purcell, R. Stalkers and their victims, 2nd edn. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2009.Google Scholar

Farnham, FR, Busch, KG. Introduction to this issue: international perspectives on the protection of public officials. Behav Sci Law. 2016; 34(5): 597–601.Google Scholar

Scalora, MJ, Zimmerman, WJ, Wells, D. Use of threat assessment for the protection of the United States Congress. In: Meloy, JR, Sheridan, L, Hoffman, J, eds. Stalking, Threatening and Attacking Public Figures: A Psychological and Behavioral Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press; 2008: 425–434.Google Scholar

Pathé, M. Stalking public figures: the fixated loner. In: Petherick, WSG, Sinnamon, G, eds. The Psychology of Criminal and Antisocial Behavior. London, San Diego CA, Cambridge MA, Oxford UK: Academic Press; 2017: 295–320.Google Scholar

Zona, MA, Palarea, RE, Lane, J. Psyhciatric diagnosis and the offender-victim typology of stalking. In: Meloy, JR, ed. The Psychology of Stalking: Clinical and Forensic Perspectives. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 1998: 70–84.Google Scholar

Dietz, PE, Martell, DA. Mentally disordered offenders in pursuit of celebrities and politicians (ICPSR 6007). Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research; October 15, 1989.Google Scholar

Dietz, P, Matthews, DB, Martell, DA, et al. Threatening and otherwise inappropriate letters to members of the United States Congress. J Forensic Sci. 1991; 36(5): 1445–1468.Google Scholar

Fein, R, Vossekuil, B. Assassination in the United States: an operational study of recent assassins, attackers, and near-lethal approachers. J Forensic Sci. 1999; 44(2): 321–333.Google Scholar

James, DV. Protecting the prominent?: a research journey with Paul Mullen. Crim Behav Ment Health. 2010; 20(3): 242–250.Google Scholar

Kirkbride, JB, Errazuriz, A, Croudace, TJ, et al. Systematic review of the incidence and prevalence of schizophrenia and other psychoses in England. University of Cambridge, IoPatM, Kings College London, Department of Health Policy Research Programme; 2012.Google Scholar

James, D. The Fixated, Lone Actors and Grievance Fuelled Violence. Bangkok, Thailand: Asia Pacific Association of Threat Assessment Professionals; 2015.Google Scholar

Dietz, P, Martell, DA. Commentary: approaching and stalking public figures–a prerequisite to attack. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2010; 38(3): 341–348.Google Scholar

James, DV, Mullen, PE, Meloy, JR, et al. The role of mental disorder in attacks on European politicians 1990–2004. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2007; 116(5): 334–344.Google Scholar

Hoffmann, J, Meloy, JR, Guldimann, A, Ermer, A. Attacks on German public figures, 1968–2004: warning behaviors, potentially lethal and non-lethal acts, psychiatric status, and motivations. Behav Sci Law. 2011; 29(2): 155–179.Google Scholar

James, DV, Mullen, PE, Pathé, MT, et al. Attacks on the British Royal Family: the role of psychotic illness. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2008; 36(1): 59–67.Google Scholar

Laschi, M LC. Le delit politique. Paper presented at: Actes du Premier Congres International d’Anthropologie Criminelle 1885; Rome.Google Scholar

Régis, E. Les Regicides dans L’Histoire et dans le Present: Etude Medico-Psychologique. Lyon: A. Storck; 1890.Google Scholar

van der Meer, BB, Bootsma, L, Meloy, R. Disturbing communications and problematic approaches to the Dutch Royal Family. J Forens Psychiatry Psychol. 2012; 23(5–6): 571–589.Google Scholar

Jakten pa makten. Betankande av Kommitten om hot och vald mot fortroendevalda [The quest for power. Report of the committee on threats and violence against elected officials]. Stockholm: Fritzes; 2006.Google Scholar

Adams, SJ, Hazelwood, TE, Pitre, NL, Bedard, TE, Landry, SD. Harassment of members of parliament and the legislative assemblies in Canada by individuals believed to be mentally disordered. J Forens Psychiatry Psychol. 2009; 20(6): 801–814.Google Scholar

James, DV, Farnham, FR, Sukhwal, S, et al. Aggressive/intrusive behaviours, harassment and stalking of members of the United Kingdom parliament: a prevalence study and cross-national comparison. J Forens Psychiatry Psychol. 2016; 27(2): 177–197.Google Scholar

Pathé, M, Phillips, J, Perdacher, E, Heffernan, E. The harassment of Queensland Members of Parliament: a mental health concern. Psychiatry Psychol Law. 2014; 21: 577–584.Google Scholar

Berglund, N. Threats on the rise against politicians. News in English Norway; 2018.Google Scholar

Bjelland, HF, BjØrgo, T. Trusler og trusselhendelser mot politikere: En spØrreundersØkelse blant norske stortingsrepresentanter og regjeringsmedlemmer [Threats and threat events against politicians: A survey of Norwegian members of parliament and government officials]. Oslo: Politihogskolen; 2014.Google Scholar

Every-Palmer, S, Barry-Walsh, J, Pathé, M. Harassment, stalking, threats and attacks targeting New Zealand politicians: a mental health issue. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2015; 49(7): 634–641.Google Scholar

James, DV, Sukhwal, S, Farnham, FR, et al. Harassment and stalking of Members of the United Kingdom Parliament: associations and consequences. J Forens Psychiatry Psychol. 2016; 27(3): 309–330.Google Scholar

Pathé, MT, Lowry, T, Haworth, DJ, et al. Assessing and managing the threat posed by fixated persons in Australia. J Forens Psychiatry Psychol. 2015; 26(4): 425–438.Google Scholar

Wales SCoNS. Inquest into the Deaths Arising from the Lindt Cafe Siege: Findings and Recommendations. Glebe NSW Australia: Department of Justice NSW Government; May 2017.Google Scholar

Riddle, FJ, Ferriman, M, Farmer, DG, Baillie, KM. Towards a national strategy for managing fixated persons in Australia. Psychiatry Psychol Law. 2019; 26(3): 457–467.Google Scholar

Kegel AH. The municipal psychopathic laboratory. Chicago’s Health. 1930; 24: 114–120.Google Scholar

Rathbone, OJ. Foursquare. The Story of a Fourfold Life. New York: MacMillan; 1929.Google Scholar

James, D. Court diversion in perspective. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2006; 40: 529–538.Google Scholar

Capellan, JA. Lone wolf terrorist or deranged shooter?: a study of ideological active shooter events in the United States, 1970–2014. Stud ConflTerror. 2015; 38(6): 395–413.Google Scholar

Guldimann, A, Brunner, R, Schmid, H. Habermeyer, E. Supporting threat management with forensic expert knowledge: protecting public officials and private individuals. Behav Sci Law. 2016; 34(5): 645–659.Google Scholar

Malkki, L. School shootings and lone actor terrorism. In: Fredholm, M, ed. Understanding Lone Actor Terrorism: Past Experience, Future Outlook, and Response Strategies. Abingdon: Routledge; 2016: 182–205.Google Scholar

Lankford, A. A comparative analysis of suicide terrorists and rampage, workplace, and school shooters in the United States from 1990 to 2010. Homicide Stud. 2012; 17(3): 255–274.Google Scholar

McCauley, C, Moskalenko, S, Van Son, B. Characteristics of lone wolf violent offenders: a comparison of assassins and school attackers. Perspect Terror. 2013; 7(1): 4–24.Google Scholar

Mullen, PE. The autogenic (self-generated) massacre. Behav Sci Law. 2004; 22(3): 311–323.Google Scholar

Mullen, PE, Pathé, M. Assessing and managing threats to commit a massacre. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2018; 52(8): 732–736.Google Scholar

Corner, E, Gill, P. A false dichotomy?: mental illness and lone-actor terrorism. Law Hum Behav. 2015; 39(1): 23–34.Google Scholar

Gill, P, Corner, E. There and back again: the study of mental disorder and terrorist involvement. Am Psychol. 2017; 72(3): 231–241.Google Scholar

Gill, P, Horgan, J, Deckert, P. Bombing alone: tracing the motivations and antecedent behaviors of lone-actor terrorists. J Forensic Sci. 2014; 59(2): 425–435.Google Scholar

James, DV, Hurlow, J. A 21st century truism. B J Psych Bull. 2016; 40(6): 346.Google Scholar

Pathé, MT, Haworth, DJ, Goodwin, T-a, et al. Establishing a joint agency response to the threat of lone-actor grievance-fuelled violence. J Forens Psychiatry Psychol. 2017; 29(1): 37–52.Google Scholar

Gill, P. Lone-Actor Terrorists: A Behavioural Analysis. London: Routledge; 2015.Google Scholar

Meloy, JR. Approaching and attacking public figures: a contemporary analysis of communications and behavior. J Threat Assess Manag. 2014; 1(4): 243–261.Google Scholar

Meloy, JR, Hoffman, J, James, D. The role of warning behaviors in threat assessment: an exploration and suggested typology. Behav Sci Law. 2012; 30(3): 256–279.Google Scholar

Coggins, MH, Pynchon, MR, Dvoskin, JA. Integrating research and practice in federal law enforcement: secret service applications of behavioral science expertise to protect the president. Behav Sci Law. 1998; 16(1): 51–70.Google Scholar

Cornell, D. Threat assessment in college settings. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning. 2010; 42(1): 8–15.Google Scholar

Vossekuil, B, Fein, RA, Berglund, JM. Threat assessment: assessing the risk of targeted violence. J Threat Assess Manag. 2015; 2(3–4): 243–254.Google Scholar

Weine, S, Eisenman, DP, Jackson, T, Kinsler, J, Polutnik, C. Utilizing mental health professionals to help prevent the next attacks. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2017; 29(4): 334–340.Google Scholar

B V. Netherlands National Police Threat Management Team. Annual Conference of the European Network of Public Figure Threat Assessment Agencies; 2015; London, UK.Google Scholar

UK Home Office. Revised prevent duty guidance for England and Wales. London: The Stationery Office; 2015.Google Scholar

Pathé, M, Haworth, DJ, Lowry, TJ, et al. A model for managing the mentally ill fixated person at major events. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2015; 49(7): 610–615.Google Scholar

James, D, MacKenzie, RD, Farnham, F. Communications Threat Assessment Protocol-25: Guidelines for the Initial Assessment of Problematic Communications. Kent: Theseus LLP; 2014.Google Scholar

MacKenzie, RD, McEwan, TE, Pathé, M, et al. Stalking Risk Profile: Guidelines for the Assessment and Management of Stalkers. Melbourne, Victoria, Australia: StalkInc and Centre for Forensic Behavioural Science, Monash University; 2009.Google Scholar

Mogul, JL, Ritchie, AJ, Whitlock, K. Queer (In)Justice: The Criminalization of LGBT in the United States. Boston, MA: Beacon Press; 2011.Google Scholar

Stanley, E, Smith, N, eds. Captive Genders: Trans Embodiment and the Prison Industrial Complex. Oakland, CA: AK Press; 2011.Google Scholar

World Health Organization. Mental health action plan: 2013–2020. 2013. www.who.int/mental_health/publications/action_plan/en/ (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Jagose, A. Queer Theory: An Introduction. New York, NY: New York University Press; 1996.Google Scholar

Sullivan, N. A Critical Introduction to Queer Theory. New York, NY: New York University Press; 2003.Google Scholar

Warner, M. Publics and Counterpublics. Brooklyn, NY: Zone Books; 2002.Google Scholar

Eng, DL, Halberstam, J, Muñoz, JE. Introduction: what’s queer about queer studies now? Social Text 84–85. 2005; 23(3–4): 1–17.Google Scholar

Rubin, GS. Thinking sex: notes for a radical theory of the politics of sexuality. In Parker, R, Aggleton, P, eds. Culture, Society and Sexuality: A Reader. New York, NY: UCL Press; 1999: 143178.Google Scholar

Warner, M. Fear of a queer planet. Social Text 29. 1991: 3–17.Google Scholar

Duggan, L. (2004). The Twilight of Inequality?: Neoliberalism, Cultural Politics, and the Attack on Democracy. Boston: Beacon Press; 2014.Google Scholar

Williams Institute. LGBT demographic data interactive. 2019. https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/visualization/lgbt-stats/?topic=LGBT#density (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Institute of Medicine. The Health of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender People: Building a Foundation for Better Understanding. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2011.Google Scholar

US Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy people 2020: lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender health. Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion; 2010. www.healthypeople.gov/2020/topics-objectives/topic/lesbian-gay-bisexual-and-transgender-health (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Conron, KJ, Mimiaga, MJ, Landers, SJ. A population-based study of sexual orientation identity and gender differences in adult health. Am J Public Health. 2010; 100: 1953–1960.Google Scholar

Saewyc, EM, Poon, CS, Homma, Y, et al. Stigma management?: the links between enacted stigma and teen pregnancy trends among gay, lesbian, and bisexual students in British Columbia. Can J Hum Sex. 2008; 17: 123–139.Google Scholar

Heiden-Rootes, KM, Salas, J, Scherrer, JF, et al. Comparison of medical diagnoses among same-sex and opposite-sex-partnered patients. J Am Board Fam Med. 2016; 29(6): 688–693.Google Scholar

Ryan, C, Huebner, D, Diaz, RM, et al. Family rejection as a predictor of negative health outcomes in white and Latino lesbian, gay, and bisexual young adults. Pediatrics. 2009; 123: 346–352.Google Scholar

Blosnich, JR, Farmer, GW, Lee, JG, et al. Health inequalities among sexual minority adults: evidence from ten US states, 2010. Am J Prev Med. 2014; 46: 337–349.Google Scholar

King, M, Semlyn, J, Killaspy, H, et al. A Systematic Review of Research on Counselling and Psychotherapy for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender People. London, UK: British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy; 2007.Google Scholar

Bostwick, WB, Boyd, CJ, Hughes, TL, et al. Discrimination and mental health among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults in the United States. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2014; 84(1): 35–45.Google Scholar

Fredrikson-Goldsen, KI, Kim, H-J, Emlet, CA, et al. The aging and health report: disparities and resilience among lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender older adults. SAGE (Services & Advocacy for GLBT Elders); 2011. https://issuu.com/lgbtagingcenter/docs/full-report-final-11-16-11 (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Kidd, S, Howison, M, Pilling, M, et al. Severe mental illness among LGBT populations: a scoping review. Psychiatr Serv. 2016; 67(7): 779–783.Google Scholar

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Stigma and discrimination. 2019. www.cdc.gov/msmhealth/stigma-and-discrimination.htm (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Hatzenbuehler, ML, McLaughlin, KA, Keyes, KM, et al. The impact of institutional discrimination on psychiatric disorders in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: a prospective study. Am J Public Health. 2010; 100(3): 452–459.Google Scholar

Russ, TC, Stamatakis, E, Hamer, M, et al. Association between psychological distress and mortality: individual participant pooled analysis of 10 prospective cohort studies. Br Med J. 2012; 345: e4933.Google Scholar

Gates, GJ, Newport, F. Special report: 3.4% of U.S. Adults Identify as LGBT. Gallup; 2012. www.gallup.com/poll/158066/special-report-adults-identify-lgbt-aspx (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Badgett, MV, Durso, LE, Sheneebaum, A. New Patterns of Poverty in the Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Community. Los Angeles: The Williams Institute; 2013.Google Scholar

Nyitray, A, Corran, R, Altman, K, Chikani, V, Negrón, EV. Tobacco use and interventions among Arizona lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people. Arizona Department of Health Services and Wingspan; 2006. www.lgbthealthlink.org/Report-Cards/Arizona/2016 (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Brittain, DR, Baillargeon, T, McElroy, M, et al. Barriers to moderate physical activity in adult lesbians. Women Health. 2006; 43(1): 75–92.Google Scholar

Blosnich, J, Andersen, J. Thursday’s child: the role of adverse childhood experiences in explaining mental health disparities among lesbian, gay, and bisexual US adults. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2015; 50(2): 335–338.Google Scholar

Poteat, T. Top 10 things lesbians should discuss with their healthcare provider. Gay and Lesbian Medical Association; 2012. www.glma.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=Page.viewPage&pageID=691 (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Zaritsky, E, Dibble, SL. Risk factors for reproductive and breast cancers among older lesbians. J Women’s Health. 2010; 19(1): 125–131.Google Scholar

Fredriksen-Goldsen, KI, Kim, H-J, Barkan, SE, et al. Health disparities among lesbian, gay, and bisexual older adults: Results from a population-based study. Am J Public Health. 2013; 103(10): 1802–1809.Google Scholar

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV and gay and bisexual men. 2019. www.cdc.gov/hiv/group/msm/index.html (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

World Health Organization. Hepatitis: Q&A. www.who.int/health-topics/hepatitis#tab=tab_1 (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Carper, TL, Negy, C, Tantleff-Dunn, S. Relations among media influence, body image, eating concerns, and sexual orientation in men: a preliminary investigation. Body Image. 2010; 7(4): 301–309.Google Scholar

Mosher, WD, Chandra, A, Jones, J. Sexual behavior and selected health measures: men and women 15–44 years of age, United States, 2002. Adv Data. 2005; 15(362): 1–55.Google Scholar

Wichstrom, L. Sexual orientation as a risk factor for bulimic symptoms. Int J Eat Disord. 2006; 39: 448–453.Google Scholar

Ostrow, DG, Stall, R. Alcohol, tobacco, and drug use among gay and bisexual men. In Wolitski, RJ, Stall, R, Valdiserri, RO, eds. Unequal Opportunity: Health Disparities Affecting Gay and Bisexual Men in the United States. New York: Oxford University Press; 2008: 121–158.Google Scholar

Bostwick, WB, Boyd, CJ, Hughes, TL, et al. Dimensions of sexual orientation and the prevalence of mood and anxiety disorders in the United States. Am J Public Health. 2010; 100(3): 468–475.Google Scholar

Houston, E, McKirnan, DJ. Intimate partner abuse among gay and bisexual men: risk correlates and health outcomes. J Urban Health. 2007; 84(5): 681–690.Google Scholar

Diamant, AL, Wold, C, Spritzer, K, et al. Health behaviors, health status, and access to and use of health care: a population-based study of lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual women. Arch Fam Med. 2000; 9(10): 1043–1051.Google Scholar

Winn, RJ. Ten things bisexuals should discuss with their healthcare provider. Gay and Lesbian Medical Association; 2012.Google Scholar

VanKim, NA, Padilla, JL. New Mexico’s Progress in Collecting Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Health Data and its Implications for Addressing Health Disparities. Albuquerque, NM: New Mexico Department of Health, Chronic Disease Prevention and Control Bureau; 2010.Google Scholar

Balsam, KF, Mohr, JJ. Adaptation to sexual orientation stigma: a comparison of bisexual and lesbian/gay adults. J Couns Psychol. 2007; 54(3): 306–319.Google Scholar

Scherrer, KS. Clinical practice with bisexual identified individuals. Clin Social Work J. 2013; 41(3): 238–248.Google Scholar

Bradford, M. The bisexual experience: living in a dichotomous culture. J Bisexuality. 2004; 4(1–2): 7–23.Google Scholar

Landers, S, Gilsanz, P. The health of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) persons in Massachusetts. Massachusetts Department of Public Health; 2009. www.mass.gov/eohhs/docs/dph/commissioner/lgbt-health-report.pdf (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Grant, JM, Mottet, LA, Tanis, J, et al. Injustice at every turn: a look at Black respondents in the National Transgender Discrimination Survey. National Center for Transgender Equality and National Gay and Lesbian Task Force; 2011. www.thetaskforce.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Injustice-at-Every-Turn-2009.pdf (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Grossman, AH, D’Augelli, AR. Transgender youth and life-threatening behaviors. Suicide Life-Threat Behav. 2007; 37(5): 527–537.Google Scholar

Stotzer, RL. Violence against transgender people: a review of United States data. Aggress Violent Behav. 2009; 14(3): 170–179.Google Scholar

Budge, SL, Adelson, JL, Howard, KA. Anxiety and depression in transgender individuals: the role of transition status, loss, social support, and coping. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2013; 81(3): 545–557.Google Scholar

Nemoto, T, Bodeker, B, Iwamoto, M. Social support, exposure to violence, and transphobia: correlates of depression among male-to female transgender women with a history of sex work. Am J Public Health. 2011; 101: 1980–1988.Google Scholar

Nuttbrock, L, Hwahng, S, Bockting, W, et al. Psychiatric impact of gender-related abuse across the life course of male-to-female transgender persons. J Sex Res. 2010; 47: 12–23.Google Scholar

Cohen-Kettenis, PT, Pfäfflin, F. Transgenderism and Intersexuality in Childhood and Adolescence: Making Choices. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; 2003.Google Scholar

Kuiper, AJ, Cohen-Kettenis, PT. Gender role reversal among postoperative transsexuals. Int J Transgenderism. 1998; 2(3).Google Scholar

Pfäfflin, F, Junge, A. Sex Reassignment. Thirty Years of International Follow-Up Studies after Sex Reassignment Surgery: A Comprehensive Review, 1961–1991 (Translated by Jacobson RB, Meier AB). Kissing, Germany: Symposium Publishing; 1998.Google Scholar

Smith, YL, Van Goozen, SH, Kuiper, AJ, et al. Sex reassignment: outcomes and predictors of treatment for adolescent and adult transsexuals. Psychol Med. 2005; 35(1): 89–99.Google Scholar

Dhejne, C, Oberg, K, Arver, S, et al. An analysis of all applications for sex reassignment surgery in Sweden, 1960–2010: prevalence, incidence, and regrets. Arch Sex Behav. 2014; 43(8): 1535–1545.Google Scholar

Cochran, SD, Mays, VM, Sullivan, JG. Prevalence of mental disorders, psychological distress, and mental health services use among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults in the United States. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2003; 71(1): 53–61.Google Scholar

Haas, AP. Suicide and suicide risk in lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender populations: review and recommendations. J Homosex. 2011; 58(1): 10–51.Google Scholar

Kertzner, RM, Meyer, IH, Frost, DM, et al. Social and psychological well-being in lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals: the effects of race, gender, age, and sexual identity. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2009; 79(4): 500–510.Google Scholar

Mathy, RM. Suicidality and sexual orientation in five continents: Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, and South America. Int J Sex Gender Stud. 2002; 7(2/3): 215–225.Google Scholar

The Trevor Project. National survey on LGBTQ mental health. 2019. www.thetrevorproject.org/survey-2019/ (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Moody, C, Smith, NG. Suicide protective factors among trans adults. Arch Sex Behav. 2013; 42(5): 739–752.Google Scholar

Olson, J, Schrager, SM, Belzer, M, et al. Baseline physiologic and psychosocial characteristics of transgender youth seeking care for gender dysphoria. J Adolesc Health. 2015; 57(4): 374–380.Google Scholar

Waters, E, Yacka-Bible, S. A crisis of hate: a mid year report on lesbian, gay, bisexual transgender and queer hate violence homicides. National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs; 2017. http://avp.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/NCAVP-A-Crisis-of-Hate-Final.pdf (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Rothman, EF, Exner, D, Baughman, AL. The prevalence of sexual assault against people who identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual in the United States: a systematic review. Trauma Violence Abuse. 2011; 12(2): 55–66.Google Scholar

Human Rights Campaign. Violence against the transgender community in 2019. 2019. www.hrc.org/resources/violence-against-the-transgender-community-in-2019 (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

Zou, C, Andersen, JP, Blosnich, JR. The association between bullying and physical health among gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals. J Am Psychiatr Nurses Assoc. 2013; 19(6): 356365.Google Scholar

Gandy-Guedes, M, Havig, K, Natale, AP, et al. Trauma impacts on LGBTQ people: implications for lifespan development. In Dentato, M, ed. Social Work Practice with the LGBTQ Community: The Intersection of History, Health, Mental Health, and Policy Factors. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2018: 118–136.Google Scholar

Walker, MD, Hernandez, AM, Davey, M. Childhood sexual abuse and adult sexual identity formation: intersection of gender, race, and sexual orientation. Am J Fam Ther. 2012; 40(5): 385–398.Google Scholar

Friedman, MS, Marshal, MP, Guadamuz, TE, et al. A meta-analysis of disparities in childhood sexual abuse, parental physical abuse, and peer victimization among sexual minority and sexual nonminority individuals. Am J Public Health. 2011; 101(8): 1481–1494.Google Scholar

Movement Advancement Project. Conversion “therapy” laws. 2019. www.lgbtmap.org/equality-maps/conversion_therapy (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

D’Augelli, A. Lesbian and bisexual female youths aged 14 to 21: developmental challenges and victimization experiences. J Lesbian Stud. 2003; 7(4): 9–29.Google Scholar

Balsam, KF. Traumatic victimization in the lives of lesbian and bisexual women. J Lesbian Stud. 2002; 7(1): 1–14.Google Scholar

Balsam, KF. Trauma, stress, and resilience among sexual minority women: rising like the phoenix. J Lesbian Stud. 2003; 7(4): 1–8.Google Scholar

Salmon, KA. Sex Abuse?: Just as Long as You’re Not Gay: An Exploratory Study with Queer Adults on Childhood Sexual Victimization (Master’s thesis). Northampton, MA: Smith College; 2014.Google Scholar

Das, G. Mostly normal: American psychiatric taxonomy, sexuality, and neoliberal mechanisms of exclusion. Sex Res Soc Policy. 2016; 13: 390–401.Google Scholar

Meyer, IH. Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychol Bull. 2003; 129: 674–697.Google Scholar

Cyrus, K. Multiple minorities as multiply marginalized: applying the minority stress theory to LGBTQ people of color. J Gay Lesbian Ment Health. 2017; 21(3): 194–202.Google Scholar

Moradi, B, Wiseman, MC, DeBlaere, C, et al. LGB of color and white individuals’ perceptions of heterosexist stigma, internalized homophobia, and outness: comparisons of levels and links. Couns Psychol. 2010; 38(3): 397–424.Google Scholar

Parra, LA, Benibgui, M, Helm, J, et al. Minority stress predicts depression in lesbian, gay, and bisexual emerging adults via elevated diurnal cortisol. Emerg Adulthood. 2016; 4(5): 365–372.Google Scholar

Alessi, EJ, Hartman, E. Incorporating minority stress theory into clinical practice with sexual-minority populations. In: Dentato, MP, ed. Social Work Practice with the LGBTQ Community: The Intersection of History, Health, Mental Health, and Policy Factors. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2018: 249–265.Google Scholar

Holley, LC, Mendoza, NS, Del-Colle, MM, et al. Heterosexism, racism, and mental illness discrimination: experiences of people with mental health conditions and their families. J Gay Lesbian Soc Serv. 2016; 28(2): 93–116.Google Scholar

Hatzenbuehler, ML. How does sexual minority stigma “get under the skin”?: a psychological mediation framework. Psychol Bull. 2009; 135(5): 707–730.Google Scholar

Pachankis, JE. The psychological implications of concealing a stigma: a cognitive-affective-behavioral model. Psychol Bull. 2007; 133: 328–345.Google Scholar

Argüello, TM, ed. Queer Social Work: Cases for LGBTQ+ Affirmative Practice. New York, NY: Columbia University Press; 2019.Google Scholar

Davies, D. Towards a model of gay affirmative therapy. In Davies, D, Neal, C, eds. Pink Therapy: A Guide for Counsellors and Therapists Working with Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Clients. Buckingham, England: Open University Press; 1996: 24–40.Google Scholar

Herek, GM. The psychology of sexual prejudice. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2000; 9(1): 19–22.Google Scholar

King, M, Semlyen, J, Tai, SS, et al. A systematic review of mental disorder, suicide, and deliberate self harm in lesbian, gay, and bisexual people. BCM Psychiatry. 2008; 18(8): 70.Google Scholar

Tozer, EE, McClanahan, MK. Treating the purple menace: ethical considerations of conversion therapy and affirmative alternatives. Couns Psychol. 1999; 27: 722–742.Google Scholar

SAMHSA. Sexual minority representation in US jails and prisons. 2019. www.samhsa.gov/gains-center (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar

National Center for Transgender Equality. LGBTQ people behind bars: a guide to understanding the issues facing transgender prisoners and their legal rights. 2018. https://transequality.org/transpeoplebehindbars (accessed June 2020).Google Scholar