Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-g7gxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T04:29:50.033Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

13 - The Climate and Environment of the Mongol Conquest

from Volume I Part 2 - Thematic Histories

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2024

By
Nicola Di Cosmo
Edited by
Michal Biran  and
Hodong Kim
Michal Biran
Affiliation:
Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Hodong Kim
Affiliation:
Seoul National University
Get access

Summary

This chapter explores the climatic and environmental conditions in the regions that were invaded by the Mongols during the first decades of their conquest. Its main goal is to trace possible connections between environmental conditions and economic, military, or political aspects of the Mongol conquest. Four separate regions are considered: Mongolia, northern China and Manchuria, arid Central Asia, and Russia and Eastern Europe. For each region, the chapter presents a survey, based on current scientific literature, of the prevailing paleoclimatic conditions pertaining chiefly to temperature and precipitation, thus attempting to assess possible connections between environmental and historical factors. The most relevant findings are to be registered in relation to environmental conditions that may have supported or hindered large-scale Mongol military operations. It should be noted that climatic reconstructions contain a high level of uncertainty and are based on different types of proxy data that are difficult to interpret.

Keywords

Medieval Warm PeriodLittle Ice Ageclimate of the Mongol conquestclimate and historyenvironment of the Mongol conquestmedieval Eurasian climate
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire , pp. 603 - 627
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agatova, A. R., Nazarov, A. N, Nepopo, R. K., and Rodnight, H.. 2012. “Holocene Glacier Fluctuations and Climate Changes in the Southeastern Part of the Russian Altai (South Siberia) Based on a Radiocarbon Chronology.” Quaternary Science Reviews 43: 74–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allsen, Thomas T. 1983. “Prelude to the Western Campaigns: Mongol Military Operations in the Volga–Ural region, 1217–1237.” AEMA 3: 5–24.Google Scholar
Bai, Ying, and Kung, James Kai-sing. 2011. “Climate Shocks and Sino-Nomadic Conflict.” Review of Economics and Statistics 93.3: 970–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biran, Michal. 2005. The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between China and the Islamic World. Cambridge.Google Scholar
Boroffka, N. G. O., et al. 2005. “Human Settlements on the Northern Shores of Lake Aral and Water Level Changes.” Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 10.1: 71–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buell, Paul D. 1979. “The Role of the Sino-Mongolian Frontier Zone in the Rise of Cinggis-Qan.” Proceedings of the First North American Conference on Mongolian Studies, Western Washington University, 63–76. Bellingham, WA.Google Scholar
Buell, Paul D., and Fiaschetti, Francesca. 2018. Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire. Blue Ridge Summit.Google Scholar
Büntgen, Ulf, and Cosmo, Nicola Di. 2016. “Climatic and Environmental Aspects of the Mongol Withdrawal from Hungary in 1242 ce.” Scientific Reports 6: 25606.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Büntgen, Ulf, Myglan, Vladimir S., Ljungqvist, Fredrik Charpentier, McCormick, Michael, Cosmo, Nicola Di, Sigl, Michael, Jungclaus, Johann, et al. 2016. “Cooling and Societal Change during the Late Antique Little Ice Age from 536 to around 660 ad.” Nature Geoscience 9.3: 231–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, Fahu, Huang, Xiaozhong, Jiawu Zhang, J. A. Holmes, and Chen, Jianhui. 2006. “Humid Little Ice Age in Arid Central Asia Documented by Bosten Lake, Xinjiang, China.” Science in China Series D: Earth Sciences 49.12: 1280–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, Fahu, Zicheng, Yu, Yang, Meilin, Ito, Emi, Sumin Wang, David B. Madsen, Xiaozhong Huang, et al. 2008. “Holocene Moisture Evolution in Arid Central Asia and Its out-of-Phase Relationship with Asian Monsoon History.” Quaternary Science Reviews 27.3–4: 351–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, Fa-Hu, Chen, Jian-Hui, Holmes, Jonathan, Boomer, Ian, Patrick Austin, John B. Gates, Ning-Lian Wang, Stephen J. Brooks, and Jia-Wu Zhang. 2010. “Moisture Changes over the Last Millennium in Arid Central Asia: A Review, Synthesis and Comparison with Monsoon Region.” Quaternary Science Reviews 29.7–8: 1055–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, J. H., Chen, F. H., Zhang, E. L., Brooks, S. J., Zhou, A. F., and Zhang, J. W.. 2009. “A 1000-Year Chironomid-Based Salinity Reconstruction from Varved Sediments of Sugan Lake, Qaidam Basin, Arid Northwest China, and Its Palaeoclimatic Significance.” Chinese Science Bulletin 54: 3749–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, Jianhui, Chen, Fahu, Feng, Song, Huang, Wei, Liu, Jianbao, and Zhou, Aifeng. 2015. “Hydroclimatic Changes in China and Surroundings during the Medieval Climate Anomaly and Little Ice Age: Spatial Patterns and Possible Mechanisms.” Quaternary Science Reviews 107: 98–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, Qiang. 2014. “Climate Shocks, Dynastic Cycles and Nomadic Conquests: Evidence from Historical China.” Oxford Economic Papers 67.2: 185–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chernykh, Dmitry V., Galakhov, Vladimir P., and Zolotov, Dmitry V.. 2013. “Synchronous Fluctuations of Glaciers in the Alps and Altai in the Second Half of the Holocene.” The Holocene 23.7: 1074–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chu, Guoqiang, Qing Sun, Xiaohua Wang, Meimei Liu, Yuan Lin, Manman Xie, Wenyu Shang, and Liu, Jiaqi. 2011. “Seasonal Temperature Variability during the past 1600 Years Recorded in Historical Documents and Varved Lake Sediment Profiles from Northeastern China.” The Holocene 22.7: 785–92.Google Scholar
Cleaves, Francis Woodman. 1955. “The Historicity of the Baljuna Covenant.” HJAS 18.3–4: 357–421.Google Scholar
Dangal, Shree R. S., Tian, Hanqin, Chaoqun, Lu, Ren, Wei, Pan, Shufen, Yang, Jia, Cosmo, Nicola Di, and Hessl, Amy. 2017. “Integrating Herbivore Population Dynamics into a Global Land Biosphere Model: Plugging Animals into the Earth System.” Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems 9.8: 2920–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
D’Arrigo, Rosanne, et al. 2001. “1738 Years of Mongolian Temperature Variability Inferred from a Tree‐Ring Width Chronology of Siberian Pine.” Geophysical Research Letters 28.3: 543–46.Google Scholar
Davi, N. K., G. C. Jacoby, A. E. Curtis, and N. Baatarbileg. 2006. “Extension of Drought Records for Central Asia Using Tree Rings: West-Central Mongolia.” Journal of Climate 19.2: 288–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davi, Nicole K., Rosanne D’Arrigo, G. C. Jacoby, Edward R. Cook, Kevin J. Anchukaitis, Baatarbileg Nachin, Rao, Mukund Palat, and Leland, C.. 2015. “A Long-Term Context (931–2005 ce) for Rapid Warming over Central Asia.” Quaternary Science Reviews 121: 89–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Demkin, V. A., Yakimov, A. S., Alekseev, A. O., Kashirskaya, N. N., and El′tsov, M. V.. 2006. “Paleosol and Paleoenvironmental Conditions in the Lower Volga Steppes during the Golden Horde Period (13th–14th Centuries ad).” Eurasian Soil Science 39.2: 115–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cosmo, Di, Nicola. 2014–2015. “Why Qara Qorum? Climate and Geography in the Early Mongol Empire.” AEMA 21: 67–78.Google Scholar
Esper, Jan, Schweingruber, Fritz H., and Winiger, Matthias. 2002. “1300 Years of Climatic History for Western Central Asia Inferred from Tree-Rings.” The Holocene 12.3: 267–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feng, Z-D., Wu, H. N., Zhang, C. J., Ran, M., and Sun, A. Z.. 2013. “Bioclimatic Change of the Past 2500 Years within the Balkhash Basin, Eastern Kazakhstan, Central Asia.” Quaternary International 311: 63–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fohlmeister, Jens, Plessen, Birgit, Dudashvili, Alexey Sergeevich, Tjallingii, Rik, Wolff, Christian, Gafurov, Abror, and Cheng, Hai. 2017. “Winter Precipitation Changes during the Medieval Climate Anomaly and the Little Ice Age in Arid Central Asia.” Quaternary Science Reviews 178: 24–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fukumoto, Yu, Kaoru Kashima, A. Orkhonselenge, and U. Ganzorig. 2012. “Holocene Environmental Changes in Northern Mongolia Inferred from Diatom and Pollen Records of Peat Sediment.” Quaternary International 254: 83–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ge, Quansheng, and Wenxiang, Wu. 2011. “Climate during the Medieval Climate Anomaly in China.” PAGES News 19: 24–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halperin, Charles J. 1987. Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol impact on Medieval Russian History. Bloomington, IN.Google Scholar
He, Yuxin, Zhao, Cheng, Wang, Zheng, Wang, Huanye, Song, Mu, Liu, Weiguo, and Liu, Zhonghui. 2013. “Late Holocene Coupled Moisture and Temperature Changes on the Northern Tibetan Plateau.” Quaternary Science Reviews 80: 47–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helama, Samuli, Huhtamaa, Heli, Verkasalo, Erkki, and Alar, Läänelaid. 2017. “Something Old, Something New, Something Borrowed: New Insights to Human–Environment Interaction in Medieval Novgorod Inferred from Tree Rings.” Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 13: 341–50.Google Scholar
Huang, Xiaozhong, Peng, Wei, Natalia Rudaya, Eric C. Grimm, Xuemei Chen, Cao, Xianyong, Zhang, Jun, et al. 2018. “Holocene Vegetation and Climate Dynamics in the Altai Mountains and Surrounding Areas.” Geophysical Research Letters 45.13: 6628–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huhtamaa, Heli. 2015. “Climatic Anomalies, Food Systems, and Subsistence Crises in Medieval Novgorod and Ladoga.” Scandinavian Journal of History 40.4: 562–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hymes, Robert. 2016. “Epilogue: A Hypothesis on the East Asian Beginnings of the Yersinia pestis Polytomy.” Medieval Globe 1.1: 285–308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Illius, A. W., and O’ Connor, T. G.. 2000. “Resource Heterogeneity and Ungulate Population Dynamics.” Oikos 89.2: 283–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenkins, Gareth. 1974. “A Note on Climatic Cycles and the Rise of Chinggis Khan.” CAJ 18.4: 217–26.Google Scholar
Jin, Heling, Zhizhu, Su, Sun, Liangying, Sun, Zhong, Zhang, Hong, and Jin, Liya. 2004. “Holocene Climatic Change in Hunshandake Desert.” Chinese Science Bulletin 49.16: 1730–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vasaru, Koskela, Mervi. 2012. “Bjarmaland and Interaction in the North of Europe from the Viking Age until the Early Middle Ages.” Journal of Northern Studies 6.2: 37–58.Google Scholar
Kremenetski, K. V., Boettger, T., MacDonald, G. M., Vaschalova, T., Sulerzhitsky, L., and Hiller, A.. 2004. “Medieval Climate Warming and Aridity as Indicated by Multiproxy Evidence from the Kola Peninsula, Russia.” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 209.1–4: 113–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krivonogov, S. K., Burr, G. S., Kuzmin, Y. V., Gusskov, S. A., Kurmanbaev, R. K., Kenshinbay, T. I., and Voyakin, D. A.. 2014. “The Fluctuating Aral Sea: A Multidisciplinary-Based History of the Last Two Thousand Years.” Gondwana Research 26.1: 284–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lan, Jianghu, Hai, Xu, Sheng, Enguo, Keke, Yu, Huixian, Wu, Zhou, Kangen, Yan, Dongna, Yuanda, Ye, and Wang, Tianli. 2018. “Climate Changes Reconstructed from a Glacial Lake in High Central Asia over the Past Two Millennia.” Quaternary International 487: 43–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leland, Caroline, Pederson, Neil, Hessl, Amy, Nachin, Baatarbileg, Davi, Nicole, Rosanne D’Arrigo, and Jacoby, Gordon. 2013. “A Hydroclimatic Regionalization of Central Mongolia as Inferred from Tree Rings.” Dendrochronologia 31.3: 205–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, Jie, Mackay, Anson W., Zhang, Yan, and Jingjing, Li. 2013. “A 1000-Year Record of Vegetation Change and Wildfire from Maar Lake Erlongwan in Northeast China.” Quaternary International 290: 313–21.Google Scholar
Liu, Weiguo, Liu, Zhonghui, Zhisheng, An, Wang, Xulong, and Chang, Hong. 2011. “Wet Climate during the ‘Little Ice Age’ in the Arid Tarim Basin, Northwestern China.” The Holocene 21.3: 409–16.Google Scholar
Liu, Xiaohong, Shao, Xuemei, Zhao, Liangju, Qin, Dahe, Chen, Tuo, and Ren, Jiawen. 2007. “Dendroclimatic Temperature Record Derived from Tree-Ring Width and Stable Carbon Isotope Chronologies in the Middle Qilian Mountains, China.” Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 39.4: 651–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ma, Jinzhu, and Michael Edmunds, W.. 2006. “Groundwater and Lake Evolution in the Badain Jaran Desert Ecosystem, Inner Mongolia.” Hydrogeology Journal 14.7: 1231–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ma, Long, Jinglu, Wu, Hong, Yu, Haiao, Zeng, and Abuduwaili, Jilili. 2011. “The Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age from a Sediment Record of Lake Ebinur, Northwest China.” Boreas 40.3: 518–24.Google Scholar
Mackay, Anson W., Ryves, D. B., Battarbee, R. W., Flower, R. J., Jewson, D., Rioual, P., and Sturm, M.. 2005. “1000 Years of Climate Variability in Central Asia: Assessing the Evidence Using Lake Baikal (Russia) Diatom Assemblages and the Application of a Diatom-Inferred Model of Snow Cover on the Lake.” Global and Planetary Change 46.1–4: 281–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Molnár, Ádám. 1994. Weather-Magic in Inner Asia. Bloomington, IN.Google Scholar
Myglan, Vladimir S., Ch. Oidupaa, O., and Vaganov, E. A.. 2012. “A 2367-Year Tree-Ring Chronology for the Altai–Sayan Region (Mongun-Taiga Mountain Massif).” Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia 40.3: 76–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Novenko, Elena Y., Tsyganov, Andrey N., Rudenko, Olga V., Volkova, Elena V., Zuyganova, Inna S., Babeshko, Kirill V., Olchev, Alexander V., Losbenev, Nikolai I., Payne, Richard J., and Mazei, Yuri A.. 2016. “Mid-and Late-Holocene Vegetation History, Climate and Human Impact in the Forest–Steppe Ecotone of European Russia: New Data and a Regional Synthesis.” Biodiversity and Conservation 25.12: 2453–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oberhänsli, Hedi, Boroffka, Nikolaus, Sorrel, Philippe, and Krivonogov, Sergey. 2007. “Climate Variability during the Past 2,000 Years and Past Economic and Irrigation Activities in the Aral Sea Basin.” Irrigation and Drainage Systems 21.3–4: 167–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pederson, Neil, Hessl, Amy E., Nachin Baatarbileg, Kevin J. Anchukaitis, and Cosmo, Nicola Di. 2014. “Pluvials, Droughts, the Mongol Empire, and Modern Mongolia.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111.12: 4375–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pederson, Neil, Jacoby, Gordon C., D’Arrigo, Rosanne D., Cook, Edward R., Buckley, Brendan M., Dugarjav, Chultemiin, and Mijiddorj, R.. 2001. “Hydrometeorological Reconstructions for Northeastern Mongolia Derived from Tree Rings: 1651–1995.” Journal of Climate 14.5: 872–81.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pederson, , Neil, C. Leland, Baatarbileg Nachin, Hessl, A. E., Bell, A. R., Dario Martin-Benito, T. Saladyga, B. Suran, Brown, P. M., and Davi, Nicole K.. 2013. “Three Centuries of Shifting Hydroclimatic Regimes across the Mongolian Breadbasket.” Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 178: 10–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pei, Qing, Lee, Harry F., Zhang, David D., and Fei, Jie. 2019. “Climate Change, State Capacity and Nomad–Agriculturalist Conflicts in Chinese History.” Quaternary International 508: 36–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pei, Qing, and Zhang, David. 2014. “Long-Term Relationship between Climate Change and Nomadic Migration in Historical China.” Ecology and Society 19.2: 68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Putnam, Aaron E., Putnam, David E., Laia Andreu-Hayles, Edward R. Cook, Jonathan G. Palmer, Elizabeth H. Clark, Chunzeng Wang et al. 2016. “Little Ice Age Wetting of Interior Asian Deserts and the Rise of the Mongol Empire.” Quaternary Science Reviews 131: 33–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Qiang, Mingrui, Fahu, Chen, Jiawu, Zhang, Shangyu, Gao, and Aifeng, Zhou. 2005. “Climatic Changes Documented by Stable Isotopes of Sedimentary Carbonate in Lake Sugan, Northeastern Tibetan Plateau of China, since 2 kaBP.” Chinese Science Bulletin 50.17: 1930–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ren, Guoyu. 1998. “Pollen Evidence for Increased Summer Rainfall in the Medieval Warm Period at Maili, Northeast China.” Geophysical Research Letters 25.11: 1931–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rösch, Manfred, Fischer, Elske, and Tanja, Märkle. 2005. “Human Diet and Land Use in the Time of the Khans: Archaeobotanical Research in the Capital of the Mongolian Empire, Qara Qorum, Mongolia.” Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 14.4: 485–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rudaya, Natalia, Tarasov, Pavel, Dorofeyuk, Nadezhda, Solovieva, Nadia, Kalugin, Ivan, Andreev, Andrei, Andrei Daryin et al. 2009. “Holocene Environments and Climate in the Mongolian Altai Reconstructed from the Hoton-Nur Pollen and Diatom Records: A Step towards Better Understanding Climate Dynamics in Central Asia.” Quaternary Science Reviews 28.5–6: 540–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schamiloglu, Uli. 2016. “Climate Change in Central Eurasia and the Golden Horde.” Zolotoordynskoe obozrenie 1: 6–24.Google Scholar
SH. See Abbreviations.Google Scholar
Shinneman, Avery L. C., Umbanhowar, Charles E., Edlund, Mark B., and Soninkhishig, N.. 2010. “Late-Holocene Moisture Balance Inferred from Diatom and Lake Sediment Records in Western Mongolia.” The Holocene 20.1: 123–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Solomina, Olga, and Alverson, Keith. 2004. “High Latitude Eurasian Paleoenvironments: Introduction and Synthesis.” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 209.1–4: 1–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Solomina, Olga, Davi, Nicole, D’Arrigo, Rosanne, and Jacoby, Gordon. 2005. “Tree‐Ring Reconstruction of Crimean Drought and Lake Chronology Correction.” Geophysical Research Letters 32.19: 1–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sorrel, Philippe, Popescu, S.-M., Head, M. J., Suc, Jean-Pierre, Klotz, Stephan, and Oberhänsli, H.. 2006. “Hydrographic Development of the Aral Sea during the last 2000 Years Based on a Quantitative Analysis of Dinoflagellate Cysts.” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 234.2–4: 304–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vetter, Susanne. 2005. “Rangelands at Equilibrium and Non-equilibrium: Recent Developments in the Debate.” Journal of Arid Environments 62.2: 321–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodruff, J. D., et al. 2015. “Depositional Evidence for the Kamikaze Typhoons and Links to Changes in Typhoon Climatology.” Geology 43.1: 91–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, Wenxiang, Quansheng, Ge, Jingyun, Zheng, Yang, Zhou, Ying, Hu. 2009. “Qihou bianhua yinsu zai Menggu xi zheng zhong de keneng zuoyong yanjiu 氣候變化因素在蒙古西征中的可能作用硏究” (Possible Role of Climate Change in the Mongol Westward Conquest). Quaternary Sciences 29.4: 724–29.Google Scholar
Yang, Bao, Wang, Jinsong, Bräuning, Achim, Dong, Zhibao, and Esper, Jan. 2009. “Late Holocene Climatic and Environmental Changes in Arid Central Asia.” Quaternary International 194.1–2: 68–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, Yunpeng, Zhang, Dongliang, Lan, Bo, Abdusalih, Nurbay, and Feng, Zhaodong. 2019. “Peat δ13CCelluose-Signified Moisture Variations over the Past ∼ 2200 Years in the Southern Altai Mountains, Northwestern China.” Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 174: 59–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, Dian, Jim, Chiyung, Lin, Chusheng, Yuanqing, He, and Lee, Fung. 2005. “Climate Change, Social Unrest and Dynastic Transition in Ancient China.” Chinese Science Bulletin 50.2: 137–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, Yan, Yang, Ping, Tong, Chuan, Liu, Xingtu, Zhang, Zhenqing, Wang, Guoping, and Meyers, Philip A.. 2018. “Palynological Record of Holocene Vegetation and Climate Changes in a High-Resolution Peat Profile from the Xinjiang Altai Mountains, Northwestern China.” Quaternary Science Reviews 201: 111–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, Yun, Kong, Zhao Chen, Yan, Shun, Yang, Zhen Jing, and Jian, Ni. 2009. “‘Medieval Warm Period’ on the Northern Slope of Central Tianshan Mountains, Xinjiang, NW China.” Geophysical Research Letters 36.11, L11702.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×