Book contents
- The Cambridge Handbook of the International Psychology of Women
- The Cambridge Handbook of the International Psychology of Women
- Copyright page
- Dedication
- Contents
- Figures
- Tables
- Contributors
- Acknowledgments
- Section 1 The Underpinnings of Sex and Gender and How to Study Them
- Section 2 Developmental Perspectives of the International Psychology of Women
- Section 3 Cognitive and Social Factors
- Section 4 Work and Family Issues
- Section 5 Inequality and Social Justice
- 26 Girls, Boys, and Schools
- 27 Understanding Gender Inequality in Poverty and Social Exclusion through a Psychological Lens
- 28 Understanding Women’s Antisocial and Criminal Behavior
- 29 Sexual Assault
- 30 Intercultural Relationships, Migrant Women, and Intersection of Identities
- Section 6 Health and Well-Being
- Epilogue Some Final Thoughts and Take-Home Messages
- Index
- References
29 - Sexual Assault
from Section 5 - Inequality and Social Justice
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 20 July 2020
Book contents
- The Cambridge Handbook of the International Psychology of Women
- The Cambridge Handbook of the International Psychology of Women
- Copyright page
- Dedication
- Contents
- Figures
- Tables
- Contributors
- Acknowledgments
- Section 1 The Underpinnings of Sex and Gender and How to Study Them
- Section 2 Developmental Perspectives of the International Psychology of Women
- Section 3 Cognitive and Social Factors
- Section 4 Work and Family Issues
- Section 5 Inequality and Social Justice
- 26 Girls, Boys, and Schools
- 27 Understanding Gender Inequality in Poverty and Social Exclusion through a Psychological Lens
- 28 Understanding Women’s Antisocial and Criminal Behavior
- 29 Sexual Assault
- 30 Intercultural Relationships, Migrant Women, and Intersection of Identities
- Section 6 Health and Well-Being
- Epilogue Some Final Thoughts and Take-Home Messages
- Index
- References
Summary
Sexual assault, including unwanted sexual contact, coercion, and rape, is a social phenomenon that has been approached in a variety of ways in different global contexts. Attempts to address risk and protective factors for perpetrators and victims are limited by the difficulty of collecting empirical data on experiences that can be traumatic, stigmatizing, complicated, and private. This chapter explores current and historic definitions of sexual assault as well as how these definitions influence estimates of sexual assault prevalence and subsequent psychological and public health responses. We describe best practices in sexual assault measurement, explore the need for culturally acceptable interventions that acknowledge intersections of identity, critique current victim response services, and finally provide recommendations for future directions in sexual assault prevention and response.
Keywords
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- The Cambridge Handbook of the International Psychology of Women , pp. 417 - 433Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2020
References
Suggested Readings
Mary Koss is a Regents’ Professor in the Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health at the University of Arizona. She published the first national study on sexual assault among college students in 1987. Half of the campus surveys from 2000 to 2015 used the survey developed for that study and most others were modeled on it. She was the principal investigator of the RESTORE Program, the first restorative justice program for sex crimes among adults that was quantitatively evaluated. She has consulted widely, most recently with the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine. She has received the Award for Distinguished Contributions to Research in Public Policy (2000) and the Award for Distinguished Contributions to the International Advancement of Psychology (2017) from the American Psychological Association. Koss was born in the USA and has traveled widely. She received her BA from University of Michigan and her PhD from the University of Minnesota. She has held visiting scholar positions in Australia and Israel. She served on the advisory board of the Sexual Violence Research Initiative based in Johannesburg.
Maj Hansen is an Associate Professor and head of the research group THRIVE at the Department for Psychology, Southern University of Denmark. She was born and studied in Denmark. Her research is primarily focused within clinical psychology, specifically within areas of prevention, screening, and treating victims following traumatic exposure including interpersonal violence. Hansen is associate editor of the European Journal of Psychotraumatology and a member of the National Research Network on Violence against Children in Denmark.
Elizabeth J. Anderson is a gender and youth development researcher at the International Center for Research on Women. Born in the United States, she attended college at University of Missouri-Columbia and graduate school at University of Arizona. She has worked globally (including Mozambique, Croatia, Brazil, and Jordan) and locally on primary and tertiary HIV/AIDS prevention projects with women. Her research focuses on exposure to intimate-partner sexual violence as an epidemiological risk factor for infectious disease. Her work in Arizona focuses on primary and tertiary HIV/AIDS prevention projects employing mHealth approaches
Maria Hardeberg Bach is a PhD Fellow at the Department for Psychology, Southern University of Denmark. Her research interests include topics related to sexual violence. Maria was born in Norway, and lived in many countries during her youth including the Dominican Republic, USA, Indonesia, Brazil and Denmark. She completed her MSc in Psychology in Denmark in 2017 and her thesis focused on child sexual abuse. Shortly thereafter, she began her position at the University of Odense. She is currently conducting a series of qualitative interview studies about formal help-seeking among adult survivors of sexual assault from underserved and marginalized groups.
Rikke Holm Bramsen received her PhD from Aarhus University, and served as an Associate Professor at the Department for Psychology, Southern University of Denmark. Bramsen’s research includes various aspects of interpersonal violence, with a specific focus on the interdisciplinary organization of rape crisis centers. At present, Bramsen is the director of the Danish Children Center in Aarhus, Denmark. She is also a member of the National Research Network on Violence against Children in Denmark. She has lived in several countries outside Denmark, including Italy, the UK, and the United Arab Emirates.
Black, M. C., Basile, K. C., Breiding, M. J., Smith, S. G., Walters, M. L., Merrick, M. T., & Stevens, M. R. (2011). The National Intimate Partner And Sexual Violence Survey: 2010 summary report. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/nisvs_report2010-a.pdfGoogle Scholar
DeGue, S., Valle, L. A., Holt, M. K., Massetti, G. M., Matjasko, J. L., & Tharp, A. T. (2014). A systematic review of primary prevention strategies for sexual violence perpetration. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 19(4), 346–362. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2014.05.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dworkin, E. R., Menon, S. V., Bystrynski, J., & Allen, S. V. (2017). Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 56, 66–81. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2017.06.002Google Scholar
Koss, M. P., White, J. W., & Lopez, E. C. (2017). Victim voice in re-envisioning responses to sexual and physical violence nationally and internationally. American Psychologist, 72, 1019–1030. doi:10.1037/amp0000233Google Scholar
Walby, S., Olive, P., Towers, J., Francis, B., Strid, S., Krizsán, S., … Agarwal, B. (2013). Overview of the worldwide best practices for rape prevention and for assisting women victims of rape. Brussels: European Parliament. www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/etudes/join/2013/493025/IPOL-FEMM_ET(2013)493025_EN.pdfGoogle Scholar
White, J. W., Sienkiewicz, H. C., & Smith, P. H. (2019). Envisioning future directions: Conversations with leaders in domestic and sexual assault advocacy, policy, service, and research. Violence Against Women, 25, 105–127. doi:10.1177/1077801218815771CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
References
Abdullah, M. A., Zeeshan, B., Anum, S., Bilal, K., Hasan, Z. F., & Jan, A. D. (2012). Awareness about sexually transmitted infections among Hijra sex workers of Rawalpindi/Islamabad. Pakistan Journal of Public Health, 2, 40–45.Google Scholar
Alvidrez, J., Shumway, M., Morazes, J., & Boccellari, A. (2011). Ethnic disparities in mental health treatment engagement among female sexual assault victims. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 20, 415–425. doi:10.1080/10926771.2011.568997Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.744053Google Scholar
Amstadter, A. B, Zinzow, H. M., McCauley, J. L., Strachan, M., Ruggiero, K. J., Resnick, H. S., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (2010). Prevalence and correlates of service utilization and help seeking in a national college sample of female rape victims. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24, 900–902. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.06.014Google Scholar
Armstrong, C. L., & Mahone, J. (2017). “It’s on us.” The role of social media and rape culture in individual willingness to mobilize against sexual assault. Mass Communication and Society, 20, 92–115. doi:10.1080/15205436.2016.1185127Google Scholar
Australian Institute of Criminology (2013). Australian crimes: Facts and figures. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. aic.gov.au/publications/facts/2013Google Scholar
Barclay, G. C., Tavares, C., Kenny, S., Siddique, A., & Wilby, E. (2002). International comparisons of criminal justice statistics 2000. London: Home Office. static.prisonpolicy.org/scans/rds/hosb502.pdfGoogle Scholar
Bartle, E. E. (2000). Lesbians and hate crimes. Journal of Poverty, 4, 23–43. doi:10.1300/J134v04n04Google Scholar
Basile, K. C., Smith, S. G., Breiding, M. J., Black, M. C., & Mahendra, R. R. (2014). Sexual violence surveillance: Uniform definitions and recommended data elements, version 2.0. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/sv_surveillance_definitionsl-2009-a.pdfGoogle Scholar
Bierie, D. M., & Davis-Siegel, J. C. (2015). Measurement matters: Comparing old and new definitions of rape in federal statistical reporting. Sexual Abuse, 27(5), 443–459. doi:10.1177/1079063214521470Google Scholar
Breiding, M. J., Smith, S. G., Basile, K. C., Walters, M. L., Chen, J., & Merrick, M. T. (2014). Prevalence and characteristics of sexual violence, stalking, and intimate partner violence bictimization – National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey, United States, 2011. Surveillance Summaries, 63(SS08), 1–18. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2015.302634Google Scholar
Briere, J., & Jordan, C. E. (2004). Violence against women: Outcome complexity and implications for treatment. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19(11), 1252–1276. doi:10.1177/0886260504269682Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. In T. Husen & T. N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), International Encyclopedia of Education (2rd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 37–44). Oxford: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Brown, J., Horvath, M., Kelly, L., & Westmarland, N. (2010). Connections and disconnections: Assessing evidence, knowledge and practice in responses to rape. London: Government Equalities Office. http://dro.dur.ac.uk/9164/Google Scholar
Buss, D., Lebert, J., Rutherford, B., Sharkey, D., & Aginam, O. (Eds.). (2014). Sexual violence in conflict and post-conflict societies: International agendas and African contexts (Vol. 18). London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, R. (2006). Rape survivors’ experiences with the legal and medical systems: Do rape victim advocates make a difference?. Violence Against Women, 12, 30–45. doi:10.1177/1077801205277539Google Scholar
Campbell, R., Dworkin, E., & Cabral, G. (2009). An ecological model of the impact of sexual assault on women’s mental health. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 10, 225–246. doi:10.1177/1524838009334456Google Scholar
Campbell, R., & Patterson, D. (2011). Services for victims of sexual violence. In Koss, M. P., White, J. W., & Kazdin, A. E. (Eds.), Violence against women and children: Navigating solutions (Vol. 2, pp. 95–115). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/12308-000CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, R. Patterson, D., & Litchy, L. F. (2005). The effectiveness of sexual assault nurse examiner (SANE) programs: A review of psychological, medical, legal and community outcomes. Trauma, Violence & Abuse: A Review Journal, 6, 313–329. doi:10.1177/1524838005280328Google Scholar
Campbell, R., Raja, S., & Grining, P. L. (1999). Training mental health professionals on violence against women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14, 1003–1013. doi:10.1177/088626099014010001.Google Scholar
Campbell, R., Wasco, S. M., Ahrens, C. E., Sefl, T., & Barnes, H. E. (2001). Preventing the “second rape”: Rape survivors’ experiences with community service providers. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16, 1239–1259. doi:10.1177/088626001016012002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheung, F. M. (1987). Changing attitudes: The war-on-rape campaign. Bulletin of the Hong Kong Psychological Society, 19, 41–48.Google Scholar
Chowdhury-Hawkins, R., McLean, I., Winterholler, M., & Welch, J. (2008). Preferred choice of gender of staff providing care to victims of sexual assault at sexual assault referral centres (SARC). Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine, 15, 363–367. doi:10.1016/j.jflm.2008.01.005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coker, A. L., Derrick, C., Lumpkin, J. L., Aldrich, T. E., & Oldendick, R. (2000). Help-seeking for intimate partner violence and forced sex in South Carolina. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 19(4), 316–320. doi:10.1016/s0749-3797(00)00239-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cook, S. L., Gidycz, C. A., Koss, M. P., & Murphy, M. (2011). Emerging issues in the measurement of rape victimization. Violence Against Women, 17, 201–218. doi:10.1177/1077801210397741Google Scholar
Dahlberg, L. L., & Mercy, J. A. (2009). The history of violence as a public health issue. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/history_violence-a.pdfGoogle Scholar
Daly, K., & Bouhours, B. (2010). Rape and attrition in the legal process: A comparative analysis of five countries. Crime and Justice, 39, 565–650. doi:10.1086/653101Google Scholar
DeGue, S., Simon, T. R., Basile, K. C., Yee, S. L., Lang, K., & Spivak, H. (2012). Moving forward by looking back: Reflecting on a decade of CDC’s work in sexual violence prevention, 2000–2010. Journal of Women’s Health, 21, 1211–1218. doi:10.1089/jwh.2012.3973Google Scholar
de Heer, B., & Jones, L. (2017). Measuring sexual violence on campus: Climate surveys and vulnerable groups. Journal of School Violence, 16, 207–221. doi:10.1080/15388220.2017.1284444Google Scholar
Decker, S. E., & Naugle, A. E. (2009). Immediate intervention for sexual assault: A review with recommendations and implications for practitioners. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 18, 419–441. doi:10.1080/10926770902901485Google Scholar
Di Silvio, Lorenzo (2011). Correcting corrective rape: Carmichele and developing South Africa’s affirmative obligations to prevent violence against women. Georgetown Law Journal. 99, 1469–1515. papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1709629Google Scholar
Donde, S. D. (2017). College women’s attributions of blame for experiences of sexual assault. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32, 3520–3538. doi:10.1177/0886260515599659Google Scholar
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (2014). Violence against women: An EU-wide survey. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. http://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2014/vaw-survey-main-resultsGoogle Scholar
Fedina, L., Holmes, J. L., & Backes, B. L. (2018). Campus sexual assault: A systematic review of prevalence research from 2000 to 2015. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 19(1), 76–93. doi:10.1177/1524838016631129Google Scholar
Fisher, B. S. (2009). The effects of survey question wording on rape estimates: Evidence from a quasi-experimental design. Violence Against women, 15(2), 133–147. doi:10.1177/1077801208329391Google Scholar
García-Moreno, C., Jansen, H. A., Ellsberg, M., Heise, L., & Watts, C. H. (2006). Prevalence of intimate partner violence: Findings from the WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence. The Lancet, 368(9543), 1260–1269. doi:10.1016/S0140–6736(06)69523-8Google Scholar
Gornick, J., Burt, M. R., & Pittman, K. J. (1985). Structure and activities of rape crisis centers in the early 1980s. Crime & Delinquency, 13, 247–268. doi:10.1177/0011128785031002006Google Scholar
Gracia, E., & Merlo, J. (2016). Intimate partner violence against women and the Nordic paradox. Social Science & Medicine, 157, 27–30. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.03.040Google Scholar
Hamby, S. (2014). Intimate partner and sexual violence research: Scientific progress, scientific challenges, and gender. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 15(3), 149–158. doi:10.1177/1524838014520723Google Scholar
Hansen, M., Ross, J., & Armour, C. (2017). Evidence of the dissociative PTSD subtype: A systematic literature review of latent class and profile analytic studies of PTSD. Journal of Affective Disorders, 213, 50–69. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.02.004Google Scholar
Hansen, N. B., Hansen, M., Campbell, R., Elklit, A., & Bramsen, R. H. (2018). Are rape cases closed because of rape stereotypes? Results from a Danish police district. Nordic Psychology, 71(1), 1–11. doi:10.1080/19012276.2018.1470552Google Scholar
Helveg-Larsen, K. (2013). Violence against women in Europe: Magnitude and the mental health consequences described by different data sources. In C. García-Moreno & A. Riecher-Rössler (Eds.), Violence against women and mental health. (Key Issues in Mental Health 178, pp. 54–64). Basel: Karger. doi:10.1159/000342773Google Scholar
Hester, M., & Lilley, S. (2018). More than support to court: Rape victims and specialist sexual violence services. International Review of Victimology, 24, 313–328. doi:10.1177/0269758017742717Google Scholar
Hockett, J. M., Smith, S. J., Klausing, C. D., & Saucier, D. A. (2016). Rape myth consistency and gender differences in perceiving rape victims: A meta-analysis. Violence Against Women, 22, 139–167. doi:10.1177/1077801215607359Google Scholar
Jadhav, A., Weitzman, A., & Smith-Greenaway, E. (2016). Household sanitation facilities and women’s risk of non-partner sexual violence in India. BMC Public Health, 16(1), Aeticle 1139. doi:10.1186/s12889–016-3797-zGoogle Scholar
Jewkes, R., Nduna, M., Levin, J., Jama, N., Dunkle, K., Khuzwayo, N., … Duvvury, N. (2006). A cluster randomized‐controlled trial to determine the effectiveness of Stepping Stones in preventing HIV infections and promoting safer sexual behaviour amongst youth in the rural Eastern Cape, South Africa: Trial design, methods and baseline findings. Tropical Medicine & International Health, 11, 3–16. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2005.01530.xGoogle Scholar
Johnson, J. L., & Cameron, M. C. (2001). Barriers to providing effective mental health services to American Indians. Mental Health Services Research, 3, 215–223. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013129131627Google Scholar
Johnson, S. M., Murphy, M. J., & Gidycz, C. A. (2017). Reliability and validity of the sexual experiences survey – Short forms victimization and perpetration. Violence and Victims, 32, 78–92. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-15-00110Google Scholar
Jülich, S., Sturgess, C., & McGregor, K. (2013). Cost as a barrier to recovery: Survivors of sexual violence. Sexual Abuse in Australia and New Zealand, 5, 57–68.Google Scholar
Kalra, G., & Bhugra, D. (2013). Sexual violence against women: Understanding cross-cultural intersections. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 55, 244–259. doi:10.4103/0019-5545.117139Google Scholar
Kazdin, A. E. (2017). Addressing the treatment gap: A key challenge for extending evidence-based psychosocial interventions. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 88, 7–18. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2016.06.004Google Scholar
Kishor, S., & Johnson, K. (2004). Profiling domestic violence: A multi-country study. ORC Macro 11785 Beltsville Drive, Suite 300 Calverton, MD 20705 USA.Google Scholar
Kohsin Wang, S., & Rowley, E. (2007). Rape: How women, the community and the health sector respond. Geneva: World Health Organization. www.svri.org/sites/default/files/attachments/2016-02-24/Rape%20how%20women%20community%20and%20health%20sector%20respond.pdfGoogle Scholar
Koss, M. P. (1985). The hidden rape victim: Personality, attitudinal, and situational characteristics. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9, 193–212. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1985.tb00872.xGoogle Scholar
Koss, M. P., Abbey, A., Campbell, R., Cook, S., Norris, J., Testa, M., & White, J. (2007). Revising the SES: A collaborative process to improve assessment of sexual aggression and victimization. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 357–370. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00385.xGoogle Scholar
Koss, M. P., Figueredo, A. J., & Prince, R. J. (2002). Cognitive mediation of rape’s mental, physical and social health impact: Tests of four models in cross-sectional data. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 926–941. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.70.4.926CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koss, M. P., Gidycz, C. A., & Wisniewski, N. (1987). The scope of rape: Incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 162–170. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.55.2.162Google Scholar
Koss, M. P., & Harvey, M. R. (1991). The rape victim: Clinical and community interventions (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Koss, M. P., White, J. W., & Lopez, E. C. (2017). Victim voice in re-envisioning responses to sexual and physical violence nationally and internationally. American Psychologist, 72, 1019–1043. doi:10.1037/amp0000233Google Scholar
Krug, E. G., Dahlberg, L. L., Mercy, J. A., Zwi, A. B., & Lozano, R. (Eds.). (2002). World report on violence and health. Geneva: World Health Organization. www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/introduction.pdfCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ledray, L. E., & Arndt, S. (1994). Examining the sexual assault victim: A new model for nursing care. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 32, 7–12. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8176657CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leung, L. C. (2017). Understanding the help-seeking decisions of sexual assault survivors: Implications for social work practice in Hong Kong. International Social Work, 60, 927–940. doi:10.1177/0020872815594222Google Scholar
Lievore, D. (2003). Non-reporting and hidden recording of sexual assault: An international literature review. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. https://aic.gov.au/publications/archive/non-reporting-and-hidden-recording-of-sexual-assaultGoogle Scholar
Lievore, D. (2005). No longer silent: A study of women’s helpseeking decisions and service responses to sexual assault. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology for the Australian Governor’s Office for Women. aic.gov.au/publications/archive/no-longer-silentGoogle Scholar
Littleton, H., Layh, M., & Rudolph, K. (2018). Unacknowledged rape in the community: Rape characteristics and adjustment. Violence and Victims, 33(1), 142–156. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-16-00104Google Scholar
Lorenz, K. M. A., & Ullman, S. E. (2016). Alcohol and sexual assault victimization: Research findings and future directions. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 31, 82–94. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2016.08.001Google Scholar
Lovett, J., Regan, L., & Kelly, L. (2004). Sexual assault referral centres: Developing good practice and maximising potentials. London: Home Office. http://library.college.police.uk/docs/hors/hors285.pdfGoogle Scholar
Loya, R. M. (2015). Rape as an economic crime: The impact of sexual violence on survivors’ employment and economic well-being. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30, 2793–2813. doi:10.1177/0886260514554291Google Scholar
Lundgren, R., & Amin, A. (2015). Addressing intimate partner violence and sexual violence among adolescents: Emerging evidence of effectiveness. Journal of Adolescent Health, 56(1), S42–S50. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.08.012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luo, T. Y. (2000). “Marrying my rapist?!” The cultural trauma among Chinese rape survivors. Gender & Society, 14, 581–597. doi:10.1177/089124300014004006Google Scholar
Macy, R. J., Giattina, M., Sangster, T. H., Crosby, C., & Montijo, N. J. (2009). Domestic violence and sexual assault services: Inside the black box. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14, 359–373. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2009.06.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, P. Y. (2005). Rape work: Victims, gender, and emotions in organization and community context (1st ed.). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Monroe, L. M., Kinney, L. M., Weist, M. D., Dafeamekpor, D. S., Dantzler, J., & Reynolds, M. W. (2005). The experience of sexual assault: Findings from a statewide victim needs assessment. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 767–776. doi:10.1177/0886260505277100Google Scholar
Morris, K. (2009). Profile: Denis Mukwege: Caring for victims of sexual violence in the DRC. The Lancet, 373(9665), 713. doi:10.1016/S0140–6736(09)60425-6Google Scholar
Nanda, S. (1999). The Hijras of India: Cultural and individual dimensions of an institutionalized third gender role. In R. Parker and P. Aggleton (Eds.), Culture, society and sexuality: A reader (pp. 226–238). Berkeley: University of California Press. doi:10.1300/J082v11n03_03Google Scholar
Parcesepe, A. M., Martin, S. L., Pollock, M. D., & García-Moreno, C. (2015). The effectiveness of mental health interventions for adult female survivors of sexual assault: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 25, 15–25. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2015.06.004Google Scholar
Rothman, E. F., Exner, D., & Baughman, A. L. (2011). The prevalence of sexual assault against people who identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual in the United States: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 12, 55–66. doi:10.1177/1524838010390707Google Scholar
Rutherford, A. (2017). Surveying rape: Feminist social science and the ontological politics of sexual assault. History of the Human Sciences, 30, 100–123. doi:10.1177/0952695117722715Google Scholar
Sebaeng, J. M., Davhana- Maselesele, M., & Manyedi, E. (2016). Experiences of women who reported sexual assault at a provincial hospital, South Africa. Curationis, 39, a1668. doi:10.4102/curationis.v39i1.1668Google Scholar
Senn, C. Y., Eliasziw, M., Barata, P. C., Thurston, W. E., Newby-Clark, I. R., Radtke, H. L., & Hobden, K. L. (2015). Efficacy of a sexual assault resistance program for university women. New England Journal of Medicine, 372(24), 2326–2335. doi:10.1056/NEJMsa1411131Google Scholar
Shalhoub-Kevorkian, N. (2016). Towards a cultural definition of rape: Dilemmas in dealing with rape victims in Palestinian society 1. In Ilkkaracan, P. (Ed.), Deconstructing sexuality in the Middle East: Challenges and discourses (pp. 177–198). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Smith, S. G., Chen, J., Basile, K. C., Gilbert, L. K., Merrick, M. T., Patel, N., … Jain, A. (2017). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2010–2012 State Report. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/NISVS-StateReportBook.pdfGoogle Scholar
Starzynski, L. L., Ullman, S. E., Townsend, S. M., Long, L. M., & Long, S. M. (2007). What factors predict women’s disclosure of sexual assault to mental health professionals? Journal of Community Psychology, 35, 619–638. doi:10.1002/jcop.20168.Google Scholar
Starzynski, L. L., Ullman, S. & Vasquez, A. (2017) Sexual assault survivors’ experiences with mental health professionals: A qualitative study. Women & Therapy, 40, 228–246. doi:10.1080/02703149.2016.1213609Google Scholar
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Boney-McCoy, S., & Sugarman, D. B. (1996). The revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2) development and preliminary psychometric data. Journal of Family Issues, 17, 283–316. doi:10.1177/019251396017003001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, J. E., & Harvey, S. T. (2010). A meta-analysis of the effects of psychotherapy with adults sexually abused in childhood. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 749–767. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.05.008Google Scholar
Tillman, S., Bryant-Davis, T., Smith, K., & Marks, A. (2010). Shattering silence: Exploring barriers to disclosure for African American sexual assault survivors. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 11, 59–70. doi:10.1177/1524838010363717.Google Scholar
Tosh, J. (2013). The (in)visibility of childhood sexual abuse: Psychiatric theorizing of transgenderism and intersexuality. Intersectionalities: A Global Journal of Social Work Analysis, Research, Polity, and Practice, 2, 71–87.Google Scholar
Ullman, S. (2007). Mental health services seeking in sexual assault victims. Victims, Women & Therapy, 30, 61–84. doi:10.1300/J015v30n01_04Google Scholar
Ullman, S. E., & Najdowski, C. J. (2011). Vulnerability and protective factors for sexual assault. In J. W. White, M. P. Koss, , & A. E. Kazdin, (Eds.), Violence against women and children: Mapping the terrain (Vol. 1, pp. 151–172). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/12307-007Google Scholar
Ullman, S., & Townsend, S. (2008). What is an empowerment approach to working with sexual assault survivors? Journal of Counselling Psychology, 36, 299–312. doi:10.1002/jcop.20198Google Scholar
United Nations General Assembly. (1993). Declaration on the elimination of violence against women. A/RES/48/104, 85th plenary meeting, 20 December 1993. www.un.org/documents/ga/res/48/a48r104.htmGoogle Scholar
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. (2011). Discriminatory laws and practices and acts of violence against individuals based on their sexual orientation and gender identity. www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/19session/a.hrc.19.41_english.pdfGoogle Scholar
von Kerenshazy, J., Tekle, T., Higo, S., Gottlieb, P., & Aradom, T. (2002). Eritrea: Military occupation, sexual violence, and HIV. Paper presented at XIV International AIDS Conference, Barcelona, Spain.Google Scholar
Walby, S., Olive, P., Towers, J., Francis, B., Strid, S., Krizsán, S., … Agarwal, B. (2013). Overview of the worldwide best practices for rape prevention and for assisting women victims of rape. Brussels: European Parliament. www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/etudes/join/2013/493025/IPOL-FEMM_ET(2013)493025_EN.pdfGoogle Scholar
Walby, S., Olive, P., Towers, J., Francis, B., Strid, S., Krizsán, A., … Armstrong, J. (2015). Stopping rape: Towards a comprehensive policy. Bristol: Policy Press.Google Scholar
Waltke, H., LaPorte, G., Weiss, D., Schwarting, D., Nguyen, M., & Scott, F. ( 2017). Sexual assault cases: Exploring the importance of non-DNA forensic evidence. National Institute of Justice Journal, 279. nij.gov/journals/279/Pages/non-dna-evidence-in-sexual-assault-cases.aspxGoogle Scholar
Welchman, L., & Hossain, S. (2005). Honor crimes, paradigms and violence against women. London: Zed Books. eprints.soas.ac.uk/3446/1/Welchman_and_Hossain,_’Honour’,_rights_and_wrongs_2005.pdfGoogle Scholar
White, J. W., & Sienkiewicz, H. C. (2018). Victim empowerment, safety, and perpetrator accountability through collaboration: A crisis to transformation conceptual model. Violence Against Women, 24, 1678–1696. doi:10.1177/1077801217743341Google Scholar
White, J. W., Sienkiewicz, H. C., & Smith, P. H. (2019). Envisioning future directions: Conversations with leaders in domestic and sexual assault advocacy, policy, service, and research. Violence Against Women, 25, 105–127. doi:10.1177/1077801218815771Google Scholar
Wijma, B., Schei, B., Swahnberg, K., Hilden, M., Offerdal, K., Pikarinen, U., & Halmesmaki, E. (2003). Emotional, physical, and sexual abuse in patients visiting gynecology clinics: A Nordic cross-sectional study. The Lancet, 361, 2107–2113. doi:10.1016/S0140–6736(03)13719-1Google Scholar
Wilson, L. C., & Miller, K. E. (2016). Meta-analysis of the prevalence of unacknowledged rape. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 17(2), 149–159. doi:10.1177/1524838015576391Google Scholar
Winter, S. C., & Barchi, F. (2016). Access to sanitation and violence against women: Evidence from Demographic Health Survey (DHS) data in Kenya. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 26(3), 291–305. doi:10.1080/09603123.2015.1111309Google Scholar
Wirtz, L. A., Glass, N., Pham, K., Aberra, A., Rubenstein, L. S., Singh, S., & Vu, A. (2013). Development of a screening tool to identify female survivors of gender-based violence in a humanitarian setting: Qualitative evidence from research among refugees in Ethiopia. Conflict and Health, 7, 1–14. doi:10.1186/1752-1505-7-13Google Scholar
Women’s National Commission. (2010). A bitter pill to swallow: Report from WNC focus groups to inform the Department of Health taskforce on the health aspects of violence against women and girls. London: Women’s National Commission.Google Scholar
Woody, J. D., & Beldin, K. L. (2012). The mental health focus in rape crisis services: Tensions and recommendations. Violence and Victims, 27, 95–108. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.27.1.95Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (2003). Guidelines for medico-legal care for victims of sexual violence, Geneva: World Health Organization. www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/publications/violence/med_leg_guidelines/en/ index.html.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (2005). WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence against women: Summary report of initial results on prevalence, health outcomes and women’s responses. Geneva: World Health Organization. www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/24159358X/en/Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (2010). Preventing intimate partner and sexual violence against women: Taking action and generating evidence. Geneva: World Health Organization. doi:10.1136/ip.2010.029629Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (2010). (2013a). Global status report on violence prevention 2014. Geneva: World Health Organization. www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/status_report/2014/en/Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (2010). (2013b). Global and regional estimates of violence against women: Prevalence and health effects of intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence. Geneva: World Health Organization. www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/9789241564625/en/Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (2010). (2014). Global status report on violence prevention 2014. Geneva: World Health Organization. www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/status_report/2014/en/Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (2010). (2016). Global plan of action to strengthen the role of the health system within a national multisectoral response to address interpersonal violence, in particular against women and girls, and against children. Geneva: World Health Organization. www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/global-plan-of-action/en/Google Scholar
World Health Organization, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2015). Strengthening the medico-legal response to sexual violence. Geneva: World Health Organization. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/197498/1/WHO_RHR_15.24_eng.pdf?ua=1Google Scholar
Zupancic, M., Huber, M., & Gilmore, B. (2016). GBV and trauma-sensitive healthcare in Afghanistan: A baseline study. www.medicamondiale.org/fileadmin/redaktion/5_Service/Mediathek/Dokumente/English/Documentations_studies/Study-Medica-Afghanistan_GBV-Trauma_CR-Medica-Afghanistan_medica-mondiale.pdfGoogle Scholar