This chapter discusses a number of passages from Galen’s work that illustrate his idea of dialectic as a tool for scientific reasoning and discovery in particular. Through logical methods such as division the researcher identifies observable properties of the thing under examination (e.g. the heart, or brain) that indicate its hidden cause or essence, i.e. function (e.g. being the centre of a particular psychic faculty) in the context of theory formation. The medical practitioner for his part will profit from dialectical method when it comes to establishing a diagnosis. The notion of indication or sign is pivotal in that its bridges the stage of discovery and that of confirmation through demonstrative proof. In addition, ‘dialectical’ serves as a label for plausible assumptions and arguments in cases where truth is unattainable or at any rate has not yet been established through demonstrative proof. Various influences are involved in Galen’s version of dialectic: Plato’s Phaedrus and Timaeus, Academic epistemology, Aristotle’s works on scientific method as well as input from the medical schools, most notably Rationalist ideas (e.g. indication). His resulting position can best be described as an original synthesis developed with a view to the interests of the medical theorist and practitioner.

This chapter demonstrates the pervasive presence of the rhetorical figure of apophasis in Austen’s writing. Guides to rhetoric, in the eighteenth century and earlier, describe apophasis as occurring when a person claims not to speak of something and in saying so, speaks of it. Austen evidently enjoyed the irony of the figure, as her juvenilia especially demonstrates. But she also appreciated its efficiency and tact, touching, but not elaborating, upon subject matter. This chapter argues that Austen saw common statements of inexpressibility as apophatic, as they draw attention to supposedly suppressed material. Many characters in Austen’s fiction claim not to be able to express themselves. Austen transforms an often cliched form of expression into a subtle narrative movement towards what characters do not utter. In this way, apophasis contributes to the development of free indirect discourse, sharing with this technique the dynamic of speaking and not speaking at the same time.