This chapter focuses specifically on how apoptosis affects sperm quality and function, and the implications of this process for both embryonic development and the health and well-being of the offspring. DNA damage in human spermatozoa has been correlated with poor fertilization and impaired embryonic development to the blastocyst stage as well as with the incidence of subsequent miscarriage. Human infertility is a complex multifactorial condition that is strongly impacted by genetic factors that assisted reproductive technology (ART) will ensure are passed onto the progeny. Spermiogenesis is a key event in the etiology of DNA damage in the male germ line. DNA damage in human spermatozoa appears to have its origins in the testes and is associated with oxidative stress. Spermatozoa possess several variants of the prolactin receptor and respond to the presence of this hormone with the stimulation of PI3 kinase/Akt phosphorylation and the prolongation of sperm survival.

Cryopreservation of male and female gametes has been long established, and nowadays low-temperature storage of human spermatozoa is a routine technique in assisted reproduction. The vitrification method uses no specially developed cooling program; it does not need to apply permeable cryoprotectants; it is much faster, simpler and cheaper; and it can also provide a high recovery of motile spermatozoa after warming as effective protection of spermatozoa against cryodamage. Higher concentrations of cryoprotectants are needed for extracellular than for intracellular vitrification. The success of Luyet's vitrification technique was supported by Shaffner applying the technique to frog spermatozoa after vitrification of fowl sperm. The advantage of programmable or non-programmable conventional slow freezing is the ability to simultaneously preserve a relatively large volume of diluted ejaculate or prepared spermatozoa. Long-term storage of frozen cells and tissues remains elusive in both theoretical and routine cryobiology, and future investigation applying nanotechnology is needed.