This final chapter draws together the various strands in my research, and links up to the explanatory matrixes introduced in Chapter 1. I show how the ambiguity towards the Russian Orthodoxy that runs like a red thread throughout Tolstoi’s life and work is mirrored in equally strong ambiguity towards Tolstoianism and its originator in the assessments of various Orthodox authors. For instance, in their anti-Tolstoian pamphlets they complained that he had “rediscovered a long-discovered America”; that he had come as “a wolf in sheep’s clothing”; had “hidden behind a mask of goodness”; had “stolen the pearl of the Gospels,” and so on. In fact, all these laments and accusations implied that there was significant coincidence between Tolstoi’s teaching and Orthodox doctrine and religiosity. That is not to say that Tolstoi was an Orthodox in spite of himself. From a theological-dogmatic point of view, Tolstoi was undoubtedly a heretic. However, that term has no relevance for an inquiry into the history of ideas. My task here has been to move beyond such labels, looking for ideational and historical connections behind all the hostility and mutual recriminations between Russian Orthodoxy and Tolstoi’s heterodoxy. All this, my study has documented in full.

Sixteenth-century Protestant reformers did not reinvent the Trinity; most preserved the medieval understanding of the doctrine of God, which the church agreed upon at the First Council of Nicaea in 325 and revised at the Council of Constantinople in 381. The remarkable continuity of the medieval consubstantial Trinity during the Reformation became increasingly relevant to framing standard Reformed theology as certain minds began to fancy antitrinitarianism. The consensus among the magisterial reformers was that sixteenth-century nonconformist “heretics” endangered traditional Christology and therefore the traditional Christian doctrine of God. At the inception of Protestant dogma, reforming theologians were forced to assess an old question of the utmost relevance to the church: If Christ is not human and divine – what is Christianity? Thus, putting the relation of God, the Son, and the Holy Spirit into words from a scriptural perspective occupied the reformers as it had the early church fathers. The early reformers who revisited church doctrine should have enjoyed a period of trial and error. However, in the broader Reformation context, the sixteenth-century characters, who pushed the orthodox envelope beyond tradition, had by the mid-sixteenth century compelled the reformers to exacting linguistic precision, which subsequently became a distinctive trait of Reformed theology.