The male experience of infertility has been widely misunderstood, largely because cultural socialization and methodologic limitations restrict men’s expression. While many have believed that men are not emotionally impacted by infertility, recent studies show that men actually experience a variety of complex emotional reactions to an infertility diagnosis, including depression, helplessness, and threats to their masculine identity. In addition, men commonly report feeling they have little to contribute to medical treatments – even in cases of male-factor infertility. Qualitative research has provided insight into the complex inner landscape men experience when navigating infertility. Healthcare and mental health professionals are in a unique position to increase men’s involvement in the treatment process. Fertility counselors now have the skills and training to help men navigate the infertility journey by giving them the tools and strategies they need to cope with this unexpected life stressor, increase social support, and enhance their overall quality of life and well-being.

In the previous chapter we looked at childhood through the lens of dependency. Infants and children can be distinguished from the young of mammals, generally, because, while their brains are large and growing rapidly, representing over half of their metabolism, they remain virtually helpless and in an immature state for a very long time. Others must care for them. In this chapter, we will examine the flip side of that coin and look at how “brainy” but incompetent children set about acquiring their culture and becoming competent members, ultimately supporting their erstwhile caregivers. This process we might characterize as “making sense,” which incorporates two ideas. One is that the child must strive to understand or make sense of all that’s going on around him or her, and this begins in infancy. And two, the child strives to be accepted, to fit in.

Identifying and quantifying sex differences and similarities has been a central research question and fascinated scientists for centuries. A large body of work has been accumulated on this topic; however, conclusions are often drawn as if they are applicable across cultures even though studies have predominantly relied on Western samples. This chapter reviews cross-cultural literature on several early childhood sex differences in domains of development that have caught attention in the literature recently: gender-typed play, gender identity, and gender expression. We also offer an overview of possible influences on sex differences, including evolutionary, biodevelopmental (genetics, sex hormones, and immune factors), and sociocultural mechanisms (socialization and macro-cultural factors). Given that a cross-cultural perspective has often been lacking in this literature, this chapter reviews research on early gender development in males and females from Western populations as well as the non-Western populations wherever possible to highlight important cultural (in)consistencies.