More than ever the welfare of horses in equestrian sport is in the spotlight. In response to this scrutiny, one peak body, the Federation Equestre Internationale (FEI) has created an Equine Ethics and Wellbeing Commission to protect their sport’s longevity. However, for welfare-based strategies to be successful, the conceptualisation of horse welfare must align across various stakeholders, including the general public. The value-laden nature of welfare makes agreement on its definition, even among scientists, difficult. Given little is known about how equestrians conceptualise horse welfare, we interviewed 19 Australian amateur equestrians using a semi-structured format. Systems thinking and the Five Domains Model provided the theoretical framework and informed our methods. Using reflexive thematic analysis, three themes were identified: (1) good horse welfare is tangible; (2) owners misinterpret unwanted horse behaviour; and (3) equestrians publicly minimise horse welfare issues but are privately concerned. Our results highlight participants’ conceptualisations of horse welfare do not align with the Five Domains Model; participants’ ideal of prioritising horse welfare does not align with their practice; and there is inconsistency between what participants share publicly and what they think privately about horse welfare. These findings can inform the development of programmes to improve ridden horse welfare throughout the horse industry. As a starting point, programmes that provide a safe space for equestrians to explore their private horse welfare concerns, and programmes that build a partnership mindset to facilitate knowledge exchange between all stakeholders are needed.

Recent research has shown that more successful performers interpret pre-competitive symptoms of anxiety as more facilitative than less successful performers. The aim of the study was to examine the effect of both trait anxiety and pre-competitive arousal intensity and direction on intermediate riding performance in the disciplines of dressage, showjumping and eventing, including whether differences exist between male and female riders. Sixty-two German equestrian riders competing in the equestrian disciplines of dressage (N = 21), showjumping (N = 25) and eventing (N = 16) were asked to complete a revised version of the ‘Wettkampf–Angst-Inventar-State’, which included directional scales for all items and the ‘Wettkampf–Angst-Inventar-Trait’ prior to competing. Final placings were used as performance indicators. Most important findings revealed that the correlation between direction of somatic state arousal and competitive placing was nearing significance (rs = − 0.23, P =0.07) and loss of focus was positively correlated to competitive placing (rs = 0.26, P < 0.05). Conclusions may be drawn that in equestrian sports positive interpretation of physical symptoms of arousal as well as the ability to remain focused on the task at hand may lead to more successful ridden performance.

The tension applied to the girth is usually based on an individual's experience rather than by scientific measurement or procedure. The equine thorax is a dynamic structure, and therefore the actual readings of girth tensions at rest and during exercise (actual tension) are likely to vary from the tension to which the girth was intended to be tightened at rest while standing (intended tension). This study was undertaken to determine the variability of girth tensions at rest and during exercise. A total of 19 Hanoverian horses were lunged on a 20 m circle in walk, trot and canter on both reins. In a randomized design, each horse was exposed to intended tensions 6, 10, 14 and 18 kg (saddle and girth at appropriate intended tensions). Girth tension was measured and recorded continuously using an in-line load cell. Intended girth tensions were not significantly different with mean actual girth tensions while standing. Actual girth tensions increased significantly (P < 0.001) between walk, trot and canter at all tensions except rest to trot at tension 6 kg, where the significance level was P < 0.01. Actual girth tension was significantly higher (P < 0.001) on the left rein at tension 14 kg in walk and trot, and at tensions 6, 10 and 14 kg during canter, and there was an overall trend for higher actual girth tensions on the left rein for the other tensions. As the thorax is a dynamic structure, girth tension variation could be due to multiple factors such as respiration, breath holding, muscular contraction, back flexion and extension, speed, gait and vertical acceleration of the saddle. Girth tension is a relatively new area of research, and as there are many opportunities for further research, a better understanding of the impact the girth has on the horse could help to improve performance and welfare.

There is a known relationship between the way athletes interpret the feelings of pre-competitive arousal and their subsequent performance. In equestrian sports, riders' interpretation of their horses' temperament may be an additional unique factor that influences the levels of riders' arousal and performance. The aims of this study were to investigate the effect of intensity and direction of arousal and self-confidence on dressage and showjumping performance, and to investigate how perception of equine temperament traits affects arousal and performance components. Twenty-two student riders (6 males and 16 females) competing on unfamiliar horses were asked to participate in the study. Prior to the competition, riders completed the Revised Competitive Sport Anxiety Inventory-2 with direction scales, and rated their horses' temperament traits using an adapted Five Factor Personality Questionnaire. Dressage performance scores were found to be positively correlated with cognitive arousal intensity (r = − 0.5, P < 0.05) and self-confidence intensity (r = 0.59, P < 0.05). Showjumping faults were negatively correlated with somatic arousal direction scores (r = − 0.5, P < 0.05). The ‘active’ equine temperament was positively correlated with somatic arousal intensity in showjumping (r = 0.5, P < 0.05) and negatively correlated with cognitive arousal direction in dressage (r = − 0.71, P < 0.005). These findings suggest that riders' self-confidence and perception of their horses' temperament are important factors in the relationship between arousal and performance.

Few studies exist regarding the physiological responses of equestrian riders during actual or simulated competition. Interest has proliferated in recent years on the responses of riders, which is mainly due to the fatal tragedies that occurred in eventing in the late 1990s. More emphasis is also being placed on the importance of riders, fitness in order to improve athletic performance at the international level. The aim of the present study was to investigate the fitness and exercise capacity of female equestrian athletes, and to relate this to the metabolic requirements of dressage (DR), showjumping (SJ) and cross-country (XC) phases of the one-day event. Sixteen female collegiate riders (age = 24.5 ± 7.7 years; height = 166.6 ± 3.8 cm; weight = 60.4 ± 6.0 kg) competed in a simulated Horse Trials Pre-Novice competition riding either their own horse or one familiar to them. Anthropometric data were obtained for each rider (body mass index (BMI) = 21.7 ± 1.9; % body fat (BF) = 23.4 ± 5.3; lean body mass (LBM) = 48.5 ± 3.6). Each subject successfully completed all three phases of the event. There was a progressive increase in oxygen consumption (VO2) during the three phases (DR, SJ and XC) from a mean value of 20.4 ± 4.0 ml kg− 1 min− 1 (DR), 28.1 ± 4.2 ml kg− 1 min− 1 (SJ) to 31.2 ± 6.6 ml kg− 1 min− 1 (XC) (P < 0.001). Heart rate data showed a similar trend from a mean value of 157 ± 15 beats min− 1 (DR), 180 ± 11 beats min− 1 (SJ) to 184 ± 11 beats min− 1 (XC) (P < 0.001). Mean lactate concentration increased progressively from resting values: rest 2.5 ± 1.3 mmol, DR 4.8 ± 1.8 mmol, SJ 7.8 ± 2.4 mmol and XC 9.5 ± 2.7 mmol (P < 0.001). Urine osmolality was significantly (P < 0.001) increased from a pre-competition mean of 0.488 ± 0.270 mOsmol l− 1 to a post-competition mean of 0.684 ± 0.230 mOsmol l− 1. Mean hand grip strength was observed to decrease significantly (P < 0.01) from a pre-value of 32.3 ± 6.3 kg to a post-value of 29.8 ± 5.5 kg. Mean weight loss pre- to post-competition was 1.6 ± 1.1% body weight (P < 0.01). In conclusion, the study emphasises the variability in metabolic cost between riders performing in the same simulated competition but riding different horses, and highlights the difference in metabolic demand between the different phases.

An understanding of the physiological and metabolic demands of competition is essential for the development of training regimens that elicit adaptations appropriate for the sport being participated in. Despite the fact that dressage is a major sport and one of only three equestrian Olympic disciplines, to date there appear to be no studies that have described the heart rate of horses performing competitive dressage in any detail. The present study was therefore undertaken to describe the physiological demands of dressage competition. Thirty-five horses competing in a total of 50 dressage tests, 36 of which were at British dressage (BD) elementary level and 14 at BD medium level, were studied. The horses studied were predominantly Warmblood or Thoroughbred cross geldings with an age range from 6 to 17 (mean ± SD age of 10.0 ± 2.5 years). The average durations of warm-up for all horses competing were 31.3 ± 15.4 min at elementary level (n = 36) and 31.4 ± 10.0 min at medium level (n = 14; P>0.05). The mean and mean peak heart rates for horses warming up for elementary level were 91 ± 13 and 146 ± 35 bpm (beats min− 1), respectively, and were not different to that for horses warming up for medium level (mean 91 ± 10 bpm; peak: 144 ± 32 bpm; P>0.05). The mean and mean peak heart rates for all horses while competing at elementary level (n = 36) were 102 ± 13 and 132 ± 20 bpm, respectively, and 107 ± 8 and 132 ± 10 bpm, respectively, for medium level (n = 14), and were not significantly different (P>0.05). Mean heart rates during competition were significantly higher compared with that during warm-up for both elementary and medium levels (P < 0.001). Mean heart rate during competition (elementary and medium data combined) was significantly correlated with mean heart rate during warm-up (r2 = 0.503; n = 50; P < 0.001). There was no association between heart rate, warm-up duration and score or placing. These observations suggest that competitive dressage at BD elementary and medium levels is only moderately aerobically demanding.

Research into other sports has shown that excessive levels of anxiety can undermine motor function during performance. This study aims to investigate the effects of anxiety and self-confidence on equestrian performance. Forty riders (12 male, 28 female; 15 elite, 25 non-elite; 12 dressage, 17 showjumping, 11 eventing) completed the Revised Competitive Sport Anxiety Inventory 2 (CSAI-2R), which measures the levels of somatic and cognitive anxiety (arousal) as well as levels of self-confidence. Two-way between-subjects MANOVA tests were used to examine competence-by-discipline interactions and gender-by-discipline interactions in CSAI-2R scores. Post hoc analysis was conducted using one-way univariate ANOVA tests. Spearman's rank correlation tests were conducted between each of the CSAI-2R subscales according to competence, discipline and gender. Most important findings include lower somatic arousal and higher self-confidence in elite compared with non-elite riders, with 15.2 ± 4.4 vs. 19.0 ± 5.0, F1,34 = 5.8, P < 0.05; 31.5 ± 4.8 vs. 25.1 ± 7.4, P < 0.01, respectively. Negative correlations between cognitive arousal and self-confidence were found among elite riders, non-elite riders, showjumpers and female riders (r = − 0.69, P < 0.005; r = − 0.41, P < 0.05; r = − 0.52, P < 0.05; r = − 0.33, P < 0.05). Greater riding-specific skills in the elite rider may result in increased self-confidence. Lower levels of somatic anxiety may further increase fine motor skills in elite riders. Practical implications are that non-elite riders would benefit from sport psychological interventions increasing levels of self-confidence and reducing symptoms of somatic arousal to improve performance.

An innovative exercise machine, which mimics the movement of horseback riding, has been made available in the market. As an initial step in characterizing this device, we determined the cardiovascular and metabolic responses to exercise. Twenty apparently healthy subjects rode the device (Equus) on day 1. The upper body exercises were added on day 2, to see whether cardiac and metabolic demands were further elevated (Equus+aerobics). After 10 min of continuous exercise, oxygen consumption increased significantly. In the Equus+aerobics condition, increase in oxygen consumption was significant as early as 4 min into the graded exercise test. Overall oxygen consumption was greater in the Equus+aerobics condition than in the Equus condition (P < 0.05). Oxygen consumption returned to baseline levels within 1 h after the Equus (190 ± 58–188 ± 50 ml min− 1) and Equus+aerobics (198 ± 54–194 ± 43 ml min− 1) conditions. Heart rates increased gradually during the graded exercise tests in both conditions (64 ± 11–78 ± 15 and 65 ± 11–83 ± 12 bpm in the Equus and Equus+aerobics conditions, respectively). Both systolic and diastolic blood pressure (BP) increased significantly 6 min into the graded exercise tests and remained elevated throughout exercise in both the conditions. There were no significant differences in BP responses between the two conditions. These results indicate that the cardiac and metabolic stresses achieved with this exercise device are small.

The objective was to describe and compare the positions of different types of bits within the horse's oral cavity. Eight horses were fitted with a bridle and six bits [jointed snaffle ( JS), Boucher, KK Ultra, Myler snaffle (MylerS), Myler ported barrel (MylerPB), Myler correctional-ported barrel (MylerCPB)]. Lateral radiographs and custom software were used to measure the position and orientation of the bits relative to the horse's palate and second premolar teeth without rein tension and with 25±5 N bilateral rein tension. The results showed differences in the position of the bits within the horse's oral cavity and in their movements in response to rein tension. Without rein tension, single-jointed bits were further from the premolar teeth ( JS 32.2±10.6 mm; Boucher 33.9±10.8 mm) than the Myler bits (MylerS 20.2±9.7 mm; MylerPB 12.8±6.7 mm; MylerCPB 14.6±4.3 mm). Single-jointed bits moved closer to the premolars when tension was applied to the reins (JS 20.8±6.3 mm; Boucher 19.7±6.8 mm). The cannons of the Boucher were more elevated than those of the other bits. The cannon angulation decreased significantly from 38.7±13.7 deg. to 21.6±6.9 deg. for JS and from 43.1±10.1 deg. to 27.8±10.1 deg. for the Boucher when tension was applied to the reins. The Myler bits showed minimal change in position in response to the application of rein tension.

A pilot study was performed using a strain gauge transducer intercalated between the bit and the left rein to measure rein tension dynamically during riding. The strain patterns consisted of a series of spikes with frequencies corresponding to two per stride in walk and trot and one per stride in canter. The highest tension recorded in each gait was 43 N at walk, 51 N at trot and 104 N in canter. Based on the results of this study, it is recommended that the methodology should be adapted so that both reins are instrumented simultaneously, data are transmitted telemetrically to eliminate the need for a tether connecting the horse to the computer, and kinematic data are synchronized with the rein tension recordings.