Extensive research has examined gender differences across various domains, providing evidence on how men and women consume differently. While biological sex has been commonly used in the investigation of gender effects, how gender and culture interactively influence consumption is less known and has recently gained more attention. In this chapter, we review the role of psychological gender in consumption. Specifically, social and cultural factors such as gender roles contribute to shape the individual´s gender identity, in terms of masculinity and femininity, which underlie consumption patterns in a wide range of contexts from information processing and responses to marketing messages to consumption of appearance-enhancing products and gendered brands, gift-giving, and altruistic behavior. We identify significant gaps in the current literature that need greater attention and propose several key areas for future research to further extend our understanding of the influence of gender and culture on consumption.

This chapter examines the psychology of women in entrepreneurship and reviews research from Western and non-Western perspectives. As more women are attracted to engaging in entrepreneurship worldwide, understanding this phenomenon would be of academic and practical relevance. In particular, we focus on discussing some of the stereotypes and characteristics associated with entrepreneurs, entrepreneurial intentions and motivations, and the challenges of gathering financial resources. In the final part of the chapter, we propose several future research directions. There are numerous opportunities to increase our knowledge on women’s entrepreneurship from a psychological and cross-cultural perspective.