The Learn, Experience, Reflect framework is discussed as an overarching guide to training design. The Learn component focuses on the declarative information that learners need to fully learn from the Experience and Reflect portions of training. This often includes didactic presentation of information. The Experience component is generally scenario based and should be used to support learners in applying new knowledge and abstract concepts to realistic situations. The Reflect component employs strategies to encourage learners to reflect on what they have learned and how to apply their new knowledge in the future. Examples and links to theoretical models are provided for each component, along with discussions of how best to employ the capabilities of augmented reality to designing training elements for each component.

This chapter reviews psychological theories and research about how wisdom develops. Why do some people become highly wise over time while others do not seem to gain any insights from their experiences? First, a broad developmental model of wisdom as expertise is introduced, which distinguishes between person characteristics, factors that foster the development of expertise in general, and experiential contexts that are conducive to wisdom. Then, a more specific model is described that describes five resources that help people gain wise insights from life challenges. Finally, empirical evidence on the relationship between wisdom and age is reviewed.

Metacognition is thinking about the contents and processes of one’s own cognition. Research shows that metacognition plays important roles in most cognitive tasks, from everyday behaviors to problem-solving to expert performance. This chapter focuses on metacognition’s centrality in learning and in self-regulated learning. When learning, people monitor what they know and whether it is aligned with their intended learning outcome. A learner’s ability to monitor effectively is known as calibration. Learners then control their next actions based on their monitoring, and finally they self-regulate the process of monitoring and controlling their learning by shaping and adapting cognition or behavior by reaching forward by planning for future tasks. Research shows that people learn better when they have strong metacognitive abilities and when they can self-regulate their learning effectively.

Highlighting the lack of opportunities to use and practise language that is often typical of the foreign language classroom, a lesson is described where learners had opportunity to consolidate learning and develop fluency in using language they had previously covered in class. Drawing on Ortega (2007), the principles of optimal practice are described and examples from the classroom show how ‘optimal practice’ may have consolidated language learning, but also led to new learning. Perspectives from both the teacher and students are included. The importance of incorporating opportunities for practice in the language classroom is discussed and, here, as elsewhere in the book, Nation’s four strands (Nation, 2007) are presented as a way of integrating balance into a classroom language programme.

In this chapter we address the question of whether or not language acquisition is largely implicit in nature. After reviewing key constructs (e.g., explicit and implicit knowledge, explicit and implicit processing/learning, intentional and unintentional learning), we discuss the major positions currently under scrutiny in the field: (1) explicit learning is necessary; (2) explicit learning is beneficial; (3) explicit learning does little to nothing (i.e., acquisition is largely if not exclusively implicit in nature). A key issue in this chapter is how one defines “language” and how one construes “input processing.” We will review how definitions of these constructs color the researcher’s perspective on the issues.