Much of the research that has been done in the last decades on women’s work and on the role of women in early modern economies deals with the urban context, but has all this production been able to rewrite the history of work in early modern European cities? The urban labour markets of early modern Europe combined two opposite and at the same time complementary features as they were regulated and structured by institutions. Yet they were also flexible and open, offering chances and opportunities to immigrant and non-qualified workers as well as the possibility of earning through activities at the limits of, or beyond, legality. The chapter addresses these observations and these questions first, by presenting the existing quantitative data on women’s work activities in different urban contexts and, secondly, by focusing on the problem of guilds and more generally on different aspects of work organization. The aim of the chapter is to present the state of the field but also to propose a vision of urban economies that integrates the gender dimension and maintains an approach that is as Europe-wide as possible.

The non-agricultural economy of the ancient Greek world included crafts, trade, and services. Evidence for such, heavily biased towards Athens, is found via philosophical writing, comedy, forensic speeches, inscriptions, and archaeological finds. Elite attitudes, in which farming was the idealised citizen occupation, also impact the evidence. Nevertheless, at least 230 different terms for non-agricultural roles and occupations can be found in the sources (with many overlaps). Of these, fifty-three are for women. Workshops were generally small, with up to five or six craftsmen of low status, predominantly resident aliens (metics), freedmen or slaves. At least some rich citizens at Athens owned workshops, with a number of slaves perhaps able to live and work independently. Notable trades such as mining, marble-, bronze-, and metalwork, ceramics, and tanning seem to have clustered in common locations within cities and territories. Women’s non-agricultural economic roles seem to have been related mainly to textiles, retail of simple products, and provision of personal services.

The prosperous harbour town of Ostia in the second and third centuries AD is a good example for demonstrating the areas of daily life and economic activities, and skilled individuals and professionals. One can expect a very distinctive society, with lots of merchandising activities to fulfil the needs and requirements of the people who lived and worked in the city. Inscriptions, reliefs and mosaics inform us about many occupations and skilled professions, as well as guilds and club houses in Ostia. The aim of the contribution is to discuss evidences of monuments and written sources on skilled professionalism in Ostia exemplarily. In general, the individuals represented themselves in an appropriate manner and in their professional environment.

A study of production remains in the ancient Maghrib allows a reflection on the technology used by African craftsmen. Archaeological remains from the Roman period prove to be valuable indicators that can inform us about tools and manufacturing methods. In particular, the study of ancient grain mills and fulling workshops develops our understanding of the technical processes and helps clarify the restitution of the chaînes opératoires for different types of activities (transformation of foodstuffs, manufacturing and treatment of textiles, construction and decoration). If all steps are not identifiable based on the archaeological record, they can still be reconstituted with the contribution of ancient written evidence, iconographic representations or ethnography. This analysis leads on the one hand to reflections on the adoption of Roman techniques and types of production in this region, and on the other hand to questioning the permanence of local savoir faire.