In Chapter 6, the author introduces dichotomously scored items and their common use with receptive language abilities, such as listening and reading, and knowledge-based language, including vocabulary and grammar. The author discusses some common dichotomously scored item types, including multiple-choice, true–false, and short-answer items. The strengths and weaknesses of each item type for particular contexts is a major focus. The chapter introduces various principles for creating or selecting inputs for listening and reading assessments, including when to use scripted, authentic, or authenticated speech, and particular speech varieties and visuals for listening. The author also discusses item preview, or the presentation of the questions and/or answer options prior to reading or listening, and the number of times test administrators should allow test takers to listen to an input. The focus is on the language assessment principles that underlie these decisions.

As teachers we are always accountable to learners, parents and caregivers, the education system we are employed by and our community more broadly for the learning we plan and implement in the classroom. Our goal is to facilitate the learning process for all the individuals in our classrooms and our effectiveness is most often judged by learners’ achievements. While the content in this chapter provides rich examples of assessment in primary English and literacy, the principles and terms discussed apply across all stages of education and key learning areas. This chapter underlines the complexity of authentic or educative English and literacy assessment. It begins by considering definitions for many of the key assessment terms in use in education contexts, including ‘evaluation’, ‘assessment’ and ‘measurement’. The importance of implementing inclusive and authentic assessment practices is discussed along with formative assessment processes (assessment for learning) and summative (assessment of learning) and assessment as learning strategies. A range of examples and case studies follow. Each demonstrate the relationship between curriculum and assessment in English and literacy.

Whitman adopted photography as a model for literary practice. By emulating the immediacy effects and truth claims of photography, Whitman developed an innovative style that aimed to endow his poems with the same qualities he valued in the new medium—particularly directness, accuracy, naturalness, and inclusiveness of representation—and the cumulative experience of these qualities by the beholder as a sense of authenticity, media transparency, and immediate encounter. Comparing the representational powers of photography and literature helped Whitman to gauge the spiritual, cultural, and political function of literature. The chapter presents Whitman’s turn towards immediacy as part of his attempt to renew and democratize American poetry. It argues that Whitman’s engagement with photography led him to create a poetic style that allowed him to address the particulars of time and place, to take the details of everyday life as his subject matter, and to invest them with an egalitarian ethos by staging the dynamics of literary communication as a model for democratic social interaction. In Whitman’s work, the appeal to immediacy thus gains a decidedly political momentum.