The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of a whole-food protein (cottage cheese, CC) consumed before sleep on next-morning resting energy expenditure (REE), RER and appetite compared with an isoenergetic/isonitrogenous casein protein (CP) supplement and placebo (PL) in active women. In a beverage-blinded, randomised, cross-over design, ten active women (age, 23·1 (sd 1·9) years; body fat, 22·0 (sd 4·6) %) consumed pre-sleep CC (30 g of protein, 10 g of carbohydrate and 0 g of fat) or energy- and protein-matched liquid CP or PL (0 kJ). Participants arrived at 18.00 hours for an overnight stay in the laboratory. At 30–60 min before normal bed time (2 h post standard meal), participants consumed CC, CP or PL before measurement of REE. Upon waking (05.00–08.00 hours), REE was repeated and subjective appetite was recorded. Statistical analyses were conducted using repeated-measures ANOVA (SPSS). Significance was accepted at P≤0·05. There were no significant differences in acute REE (CC, 7217 (sd 1368); CP, 7188 (SD 895); PL, 7075 (sd 1108) kJ/d, P=0·95), acute RER (0·79 (sd 0·05), P=0·56), morning REE (CC, 5840 (sd 1225); CP, 5694 (sd 732); PL, 5991 (sd 903) kJ/d, P=0·79) or morning RER (0·77 (sd 0·03), P=0·52). Subjective measures of appetite were not different between groups. In active women, pre-sleep consumption of CC does not alter REE or RER more than a CP or PL beverage. These data suggest that the metabolic response from whole-food protein do not differ from the metabolic response of liquid protein.

Non-exercise physical activity (NEPA) and/or non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT) reductions may occur from diet and/or exercise-induced negative energy balance interventions, resulting in less-than-expected weight loss. This systematic review describes the effects of prescribed diet and/or physical activity (PA)/exercise on NEPA and/or NEAT in adults. Studies were identified from PubMed, web-of-knowledge, Embase, SPORTDiscus, ERIC and PsycINFO searches up to 1 March 2017. Eligibility criteria included randomised controlled trials (RCT), randomised trials (RT) and non-randomised trials (NRT); objective measures of PA and energy expenditure; data on NEPA, NEAT and spontaneous PA; ≥10 healthy male/female aged>18 years; and ≥7 d length. The trial is registered at PROSPERO-2017-CRD42017052635. In all, thirty-six articles (RCT-10, RT-9, NRT-17) with a total of seventy intervention arms (diet, exercise, combined diet/exercise), with a total of 1561 participants, were included. Compensation was observed in twenty-six out of seventy intervention arms (fifteen studies out of thirty-six reporting declines in NEAT (eight), NEPA (four) or both (three)) representing 63, 27 and 23 % of diet-only, combined diet/exercise, and exercise-only intervention arms, respectively. Weight loss observed in participants who decreased NEAT was double the weight loss found in those who did not compensate, suggesting that the energy imbalance degree may lead to energy conservation. Although these findings do not support the hypothesis that prescribed diet and/or exercise results in decreased NEAT and NEPA in healthy adults, the underpowered trial design and the lack of state-of-the-art methods may limit these conclusions. Future studies should explore the impact of weight-loss magnitude, energetic restriction degree, exercise dose and participant characteristics on NEAT and/or NEPA.

The present study aimed to determine the effects of mannoheptulose (MH) (8 mg/kg) on energy expenditure (EE), respiratory quotient (RQ) and glycaemic response in healthy adult Beagle dogs (n 8; 9·62 (sem 0·31) kg; body condition score 4·5). The study was designed as replicated 4 × 4 Latin squares with a 2 × 2 factorial treatment structure. The dietary treatments were low carbohydrate (CHO) relative to fat diet (LC; 31 % CHO, 28 % fat) with placebo (0 mg/kg) or MH supplement and high CHO relative to fat diet (HC; 54 % CHO, 11 % fat) with placebo (0 mg/kg) or MH supplement. Dogs were fed to maintain body weight (HC and HC+MH 3625 (sem 295) kJ and LC and LC+MH 3542 (sem 284) kJ). Resting and postprandial (0–4 h; 5–10 h; 11–17 h; 18–23 h) EE and RQ were determined by indirect calorimetry (days 12 or 14). Glycaemic response to a meal (24 h) and plasma MH concentrations were determined on days 12 or 14. Plasma MH followed first-order kinetics, confirming that MH is absorbed and available to the animal. In the presence of high dietary CHO, MH increased postprandial EE (5–10 h only), suggesting MH increased dietary induced thermogenesis. In contrast to earlier reports, MH did not affect serum glucose or insulin in the present study. Irrespective of MH, dogs adapted RQ to diet composition and dogs consuming the LC diet had a greater incremental AUC for glucose, but not insulin, than dogs consuming the HC diet.

Meal-induced thermogenesis (MIT) research findings have been highly inconsistent, in part, due to the variety of durations and protocols used to measure MIT. In the present study, we aimed to determine the following: (1) the proportion of a 6 h MIT response completed at 3, 4 and 5 h; (2) the associations between the shorter durations and the 6 h measures; (3) whether shorter durations improved the reproducibility of the measurement. MIT was measured in response to a 2410 kJ mixed composition meal in ten individuals (five males and five females) on two occasions. Energy expenditure was measured continuously for 6 h post-meal using indirect calorimetry, and MIT was calculated as the increase in energy expenditure above the pre-meal RMR. On average, 76, 89 and 96 % of the 6 h MIT response was completed within 3, 4 and 5 h, respectively, and MIT at each of these time points was strongly correlated with the 6 h MIT response (range for correlations, r 0·990–0·998; P< 0·01). The between-day CV for the 6 h measurement was 33 %, but it was significantly lower after 3 h of measurement (CV 26 %; P= 0·02). Despite variability in the total MIT between days, the proportion of MIT that was completed at 3, 4 and 5 h was reproducible (mean CV: 5 %). While 6 h are typically required to measure the complete MIT response, the 3 h measures provide sufficient information about the magnitude of the MIT response and may be applicable for testing individuals on repeated occasions.

Limited research has suggested that the food form of nutritional supplements (FFNS) and resistance training (RT) influence ingestive behaviour and energy balance in older adults. The effects of the FFNS and RT on acute appetitive, endocrine and metabolic responses are not adequately documented. The present study assessed the effects of the FFNS and RT on postprandial appetite sensations (hunger and fullness), endocrine responses (plasma insulin, cholecystokinin, ghrelin and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)), metabolism (glucose, energy expenditure and RER) and food intake (satiation) in older adults. On separate days, eighteen sedentary (Sed) and sixteen RT healthy adults (age 62–84 years) consumed 12·5 % of their energy need as an isoenergetic- and macronutrient-matched solid or beverage. Postprandial responses were assessed over 4 h. No RT × FFNS interactions were observed for any parameter. Fasting cholecystokinin was higher in the RT v. Sed group (P < 0·05). RT did not influence fullness, but fullness was higher following the solid v. beverage intake (P < 0·01). Neither RT nor FFNS influenced hunger. Glucose and insulin were higher after the solid v. beverage intake (P < 0·01). Ghrelin, GLP-1 and energy expenditure were not different between the RT and FFNS groups. Postprandial cholecystokinin was higher in the RT v. Sed group (P < 0·01) and for solid v. beverage (P < 0·05). RER was lower for solid v. beverage (P < 0·001). Neither RT nor FFNS independently or interactively influenced food intake 2 h after post-nutritional supplements. In conclusion, RT had little influence on ingestive behaviour. The appetitive and endocrine responses suggested the solid-promoted satiety; however, the FFNS did not alter subsequent food intake.

The effect of meal composition and energy content on the thermic effect of food (TEF) was investigated in sixteen adult, non–obese female subjects. Each subject consumed four different test meals, each meal on a different day. Meals were of high-carbohydrate-low-fat (HCLF) with 0.70, 0.19 and o.11 of the energy content from carbohydrate, fat and protein respectively, and low-carbohydrate-high–fat (LCHF) with 0.24, 0.65 and 0.11 of the energy content from carbohydrate, fat and protein respectively. The energy contents of the test meals for each composition were 2520 kJ (600 kcal) and 5040 kJ (1200 kcal). The basal metabolic rate (BMR) and the postprandial metabolic rate (PP-MR) were measured by open-circuit indirect calorimetry using the Douglas bag technique while the subjects were in the supine position. The mean BMR value was 3.63 (SE 0.07) kJ/min (0.87 kcal/min (SE 0.17)). The 5 H-TEF value for the 2520 kJ (600 kcal) HCLF meal was 228 (SE 11.8) kJ (54 kcal (SE 2.8)) and for the LCHF meal was 228 (SE 9.6) kJ (54 kcal (SE 2.3)). The corresponding values for the 5040 kJ (1200 kcal) meals were 356 (SE 20.4) kJ (85 kcal (SE 4.9)) and 340 (SE 15.8) kJ (81 kcal (SE 3.8)). There was no significant (P =0.49) effect of meal composition on TEF, but the energy content of the meals had a significant (P < 0.001) effect on TEF. In all subjects and for all meals, PP-MR had not returned to premeal level 5 h after a meal, indicating that the TEF values measured underestimate total TFF. The present study suggests that TEF is significantly influenced by the energy content of a meal but not by meal composition.