Additional theorists included in this chapter provide a basis for understanding creativity and motivation. Topics include Piaget and Carl Rogers compared with Maslow, Skinner’s reinforcement theory, Bandura’s self-efficacy concept, Festinger’s focus on cognitive dissonance, Flavell’s concept of metacognition, Adams’s equity theory, and the Rosenthal and Jacobson pygmalion effect.

Until the early twentieth century there has been little basis for thinking about meaningful work in Management Research beyond the perfect match between the supply and demand of labour and technical methods to get as much work as possible out of this breathing factor of production. Then, however, the interplay of political, economic and cultural dynamics forces management theory to reconsider. This is the point in time in which this chapter sets off and illustrates who spread the seeds of meaningful work ideas on the contested soil of economic rationality ideas and with what result. The chapter captures the development that has led to complementary, but also competing thoughts of meaningful work in the domain of classical and contemporary Management and Organisational Behaviour literature. We claim that management interest in meaningful wage labour for employees is based on the idea that such work leads to the kind of work orientations that enhances efficiency and productivity. From this perspective, meaningful work is not a gift from the employer, but the latter’s strategic choice.

The third force movement, grounded in the principles of existential philosophy, focuses on the individual in quest of identity, values, and authenticity. The nineteenth century writings of such figures as Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Dilthey formed the background for the view of the person as alone and dehumanized. The twentieth century works of Sartre, Camus, and Jaspers offered further expression to the basic state of anxiety and absurdity. The personalism of Emmanuel Mounier and Karol Wojtyła reintroduced the person within psychology. The methodological writings of Husserl and Heidegger contributed to the development of phenomenology as a means of investigating the holistic character of human experience. The combined existential–phenomenological psychology was an application of a new orientation in clinical settings, by such psychologists as Merleau-Ponty and Binswanger. In America, the humanistic viewpoints of Allport, Bühler, Maslow, May, and Rogers agreed generally with the European movement, and a center of existential-phenomenological psychology emerged at Duquesne University. Although it did not generate a comprehensive alternative to behaviorist formulations, the third force movement has exerted an impact on clinical applications, especially in therapeutic efforts.

A few serial killers act in pairs, each bringing a disturbed upbringing. Some report distress through lack of sexual opportunity. Attachments to others, engagements and commitments to work can offer some protection against following this toxic trajectory. The choice of victim reflects the killer’s sexual orientation and desirability of the target, and in some cases the perception of the victim’s guilt. Sex workers are the favoured victims, apparently reflecting the ease of access to them and their perceived immorality. Lust killing became most evident in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. In the twentieth century it became disproportionately an American phenomenon, with a peak in the 1960-1980 period.It can be speculated that various factors contributed to this rise, such as breakup of the traditional family structure, the availability of cars and highways and an increased frequency of drug addiction amongst sex workers. Lust killers are almost without exception male.