Chapter 16 considers the development of the doctrine of justification in Lutheran and Reformed Orthodoxy in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Justification was understood by both Protestant communities as an essentially forensic notion. However, there were important divergences between the two, particularly in relation to their understanding of the nature of predestination and the role of a covenant between God and humanity. The chapter analyses the convergences and divergences between Lutheran and Reformed Orthodoxy on the question of the objective grounds and subjective appropriation of justification, before exploring the much greater emphasis placed on the covenantal context of justification in several sections of Reformed theology. Finally, the chapter considers the degrees of continuity that can be identified between the original approaches to justification found in the writings of Luther and Calvin and those found in their Orthodox successors.

Chapter 13 assesses the changes in understanding of justification within Lutheranism between 1516 to 1580, noting in particular the growing influence of Melanchthon’s forensic understanding of justification on the shaping of the Wittenberg movement’s approach to ʻjustification by faith alone’. The chapter highlights some divergences in early Lutheranism, and tracks the growing convergence within the movement around a forensic doctrine of justification through an imputed righteousness, reflecting the increasing theological authority of Melanchthon during this period. Justification was now identified as the divine act of acceptance of an individual as righteous, followed by the process of sanctification, through which that individual became righteous. After considering the theology of justification set out in the Augsburg Confession and its apology, the chapter concludes by focussing on the consolidation of a distinctively Lutheran approach in the Formula of Concord, noting how this aimed to resolve some significant debates within Lutheranism around this time.